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9 | Regional Assessment of Soil Changes in Africa South of the Sahara Regional Coordinator: Victor Chude (ITPS/Nigeria) Regional Lead Author: Ayoade Ogunkunle (Nigeria) Contributing Authors: Victor Chude (ITPS/Nigeria), Isaurinda Dos Santos (ITPS/Cape Verde), Tekalign Mamo (ITPS/Ethiopia), Garry Paterson (South Africa), Ndaye Soumare (Senegal), Liesl Wiese (South Africa), and Martin Yemefack (ITPS/Cameroon). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 242 in Africa South of the Sahara
9.1 | Introduction Land degradation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is believed to be expanding at an alarming rate, accompanied by the lowest agriculture and livestock yields of any region in the world. While cereal production has increased marginally over the past two decades, more than 70 percent of this growth is due to area expansion rather than yield increases. The region also suffers from the world’s highest rate of deforestation, with some countries having lost more than 10 percent of their forest cover in the fiveyears up to 2009 (IFAD, 2009) and is most likely continuing at the same rate to this day. There is a growing and long-standing recognition among both policy-makers and soil specialists that soil degradation is one of the root causes of declining agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa and that, unless the process of degradation is controlled, many parts of the continent will suffer increasingly from food insecurity (e.g. see Lal, 1990; UNEP, 1982). The consequences of allowing the productivity of Africa’s soil resources to continue on its present downward spiral will be severe, not only for the economies of individual countries, but for the welfare of the millions of rural households across the continent who are dependent on agriculture (FAO, 1999). Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality caused its improper use by humans, usually for agricultural, pastoral, industrial or urban purposes. Soil degradation may be exacerbated by climate change and encompasses physical, chemical and biological deterioration. Examples of soil degradation cited by Charman and Murphy (2005) are: loss of organic matter; decline in soil fertility; decline in structural condition; topsoil loss and erosion; adverse changes in salinity, acidity or alkalinity; and the effects of toxic chemicals, pollutants and excessive flooding. There is no consensus on the exact extent and severity of land degradation or its impacts in SSA as a whole (Reich et al., 2001; GEF, 2006). Lack of information and knowledge is considered to be one of the major obstacles for reducing land degradation, improving agricultural productivity, and facilitating the adoption of sustainable land management (SLM) among smallholder farmers (Liniger et al., 2011). The recent publication of the first Soil Atlas of Africa has provided a first comprehensive overview of the soil resources of Africa (Jones et al., 2013). Four continental-scale studies have assessed the extent of soil degradation in Africa. A literature review by Dregne (1990) of 33 countries found compelling evidence of serious land degradation in sub-regions of 13 countries: Algeria, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Mali, Morocco, Nigeria, Swaziland, Tanzania, Tunisia, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. In another literature review, focused on drylands only, Dregne and Chou (1992) estimated that 73 percent of drylands were degraded and 51 percent severely degraded. They concluded that 18 percent of irrigated lands, 61 percent of rainfed lands, and 74 percent of rangelands located in SSA drylands are degraded. The Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) expert survey found that 65 percent of soils on agricultural lands in Africa had become degraded since the middle of the twentieth century, as had 31 percent of permanent pastures, and 19 percent of woodlands and forests (Oldeman, Hakkeling and Sombroek, 1991). Serious degradation affected 19 percent of agricultural land. A high proportion (72 percent) of degraded land was in drylands. The most widespread cause of degradation was water erosion, followed by wind erosion, chemical degradation (three-quarters from nutrient loss, the rest from salinization), and physical degradation. In terms of causes of degradation, overgrazing was responsible for half of all degradation, followed by agricultural activities, deforestation, and overexploitation. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 243 in Africa South of the Sahara
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
Page 233 and 234: capacity declines as N loads increa
Page 235 and 236: The concept of the critical load of
Page 237 and 238: as it indicates that management and
Page 239 and 240: 10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
Page 241 and 242: phenomena such as the onset of mass
Page 243 and 244: Although poorly explored, diversity
Page 245 and 246: affect the health of humans and ani
Page 247 and 248: Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249 and 250: Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
Page 251 and 252: Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
Page 253 and 254: Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256: Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
Page 257 and 258: Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
Page 259 and 260: Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262: Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
Page 263 and 264: UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
Page 265 and 266: 8 | Governance and policy responses
Page 267 and 268: contemporary challenge for policy m
Page 269 and 270: Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
Page 271 and 272: Ensure integrated management of pes
Page 273 and 274: 8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
Page 275 and 276: while in areas with fertile soils t
Page 277 and 278: In New Zealand, there are few regul
Page 279 and 280: The SEEA Central Framework identifi
Page 281 and 282: EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
Page 283: World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
Page 287 and 288: Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
Page 289 and 290: The soils are strongly weathered an
Page 291 and 292: It exposes the soil to the erosive
Page 293 and 294: In many African cultures, harvestin
Page 295 and 296: Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
Page 297 and 298: Poverty: General poverty of the far
Page 299 and 300: Considering that over 80 percent of
Page 301 and 302: Extent of SOM decline in the region
Page 303 and 304: Many farmers do not follow recommen
Page 305 and 306: 9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
Page 307 and 308: Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
Page 309 and 310: management, it is important to note
Page 311 and 312: From 2006, several further national
Page 313 and 314: Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
Page 315 and 316: Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
Page 317 and 318: Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
Page 319 and 320: Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
Page 321 and 322: Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
Page 323 and 324: Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
Page 325 and 326: Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
Page 327 and 328: Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
Page 329 and 330: 10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 331 and 332: Figure 10.1 Length of the available
Page 333 and 334: Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
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Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
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Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
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13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
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13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
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In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
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Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
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FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
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Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
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Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
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14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
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Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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