World’s Soil Resources

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50 Urban Area (SQKM) Urbanization index (%) 40 Urban Area (thousands SQKM) 30 20 Urbanization index (%) 10 0 Brazil Argentina Mexico Venezuela Chile Peru Colombia Ecuador Bolivia Paraguay Uruguay Puerto Rico Cuba Dominican Republic Costa Rica Panama Trinidad and Tobago Jamaica Guatemala Guinea Haiti Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua El Salvador Honduras Guyana Suriname Aruba French Guiana Bahamas, The Guadeloupe Martinique Barbados Virgin Islands Belize Antigua and Barbuda St. Lucia Cayman Islands Grenada St. Vincent and the Grenadines Dominica St. Kitts and Nevis Anguilla Montserrat Sao Tome and Principe British Virgin Islands St. Pierre and Miquelon Turks and Caicos Islands Figure 12.2 Extent of the urban area and the urbanization index for Latin American and Caribbean countries. 12.4 | Major threats to soils Among the general threats to soil that occur in the region, the three most important ones in LAC will be discussed here in more detail. 12.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion by water is the main soil degradation process worldwide and in LAC as well. Wind erosion is also prevalent in specific areas with arid and semiarid climates (rainfall lower than 600 mm). A high proportion of the land in LAC is on steep slopes, and the main limitation for its agricultural use is water erosion (Alegre, Felipe-Morales and La Torre, 1990; Pla, 1993, 1996a; Duvert et al., 2010; PNUMA-CEPAL, 2010). However, the problems of accelerated water erosion are not confined to steep slopes, but are also widespread in agricultural areas with more gentle slopes. In general, the increasing trend of erosion in LAC is mainly due to the fast growth of the human population and to pressures put on the land by deforestation and over-grazing, and by inappropriate agricultural practices in both subsistence and large-scale high-input commercial agriculture (Pla, 1996a). Erosion in LAC is mostly caused by water. Some estimates suggest that 42 percent of flood events contribute to 70 percent of sediment export (Duvert et al., 2010). In drier areas of Mexico and Argentina on the other hand, wind erosion prevails. Estimations of areas affected by erosion in the region vary, but a conservative figure is around 15 percent for South America and 26 percent for Central America (Oldeman, 1991b). Although there is clear evidence that large and increasing areas of land are being affected by different processes of soil erosion, most of the existing evaluations of the type, extent and intensity of soil erosion at country or regional level are not very precise or objective. Mass and landslide erosion processes are usually not differentiated from surface erosion problems (Hincapié and Ramirez, 2010), leading to an often faulty identification of the origin of erosion processes (Pla, 1992, 1993, 2011). The magnitude of the soil erosion problems is highly variable, with estimated values for average soil losses in the Andes and Central America ranging between 5 and 50 percent of the area or from 100 to 1 000 Mg km -2 yr -1 . Probably almost half of agricultural lands are negatively affected by surface soil erosion at different levels, with 15-25 percent, depending on the region, strongly affected (Oldeman et al., 1991a, b). Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 374 in Latin America and the Caribbean
New regional information has been generated largely through indirect or remote sensing, usually without sufficient ground-truthing (Bai et al., 2008; Nachtergaele, Petri and Biancalani, 2011). Some indirect recent evaluations based only on soil cover and slope show a reduction in the area with risks of soil erosion to only 5 percent (EC, 2013). In those evaluations, the processes of mass erosion have not received any attention or have been confused with the very different processes of surface erosion (Pla, 2011). The control of soil erosion and of the derived effects depend on appropriate land use and management planning supported by appropriate soil governance (FAO, 2012). In many LAC countries, the application of conservation measures is limited by lack of integration between conservation and development, the lack of legislation or ways to implement it, and the shortage of basic local information, trained personnel and financial resources (Pla, 1996b). With few isolated exceptions, there have not been policies and well-targeted subsidies or incentives through marketing prices and credits to induce sustainable land management. In addition, agricultural research has been oriented towards increasing productivity through the use of inputs rather than to sustainable land use. This has contributed indirectly to growing environmental problems, including soil erosion. A main objective of research on soil erosion in LAC must therefore now be to collect and evaluate data to generate technology for prediction and control of soil erosion. An understanding of the basic erosion processes in each particular situation is required in order to select an effective technology and transfer it to farmers (Pla, 2003). Some empirical models to predict erosion (USLE, RUSLE) are currently used indiscriminately, without scientific evidence of their applicability to a particular situation. The uncritical use of results from these models has led to gross errors in planning land use and management (Pla, 2011). However, the RUSLE equation has been successfully adopted as a basis for soil use regulations in some countries (Alegre, Felipe-Morales and La Torre, 1990). One key area for research is the study of existing indigenous practices. An understanding of the biophysical and human factors behind these practices might indicate how they can be adopted or adapted to the present socio-economic situation. Finally, institutional support is essential for developing and assuring continuity of the required research in soil erosion and conservation practices in LAC countries (Pla, 2003). 12.4.2 | Soil organic carbon change Soil organic carbon is the main component of humus. It is an organic compound with a stable C/N ratio which varies between 10 and 13 in most soils of LAC and of the world as a whole (Palm and Sanchez, 1990; Sisti et al., 2004; Jantalia et al., 2007). It is therefore only possible to increase the SOC content if the N content also increases to maintain the relationship (Boddey et al., 2012 a, b, 2014). The reverse is also true: increasing one unit of soil N availability due to the mineralization of soil organic nitrogen will release between 10 and 13 units of C, equivalent to around 40 kg of CO 2 . Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 375 in Latin America and the Caribbean
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
Page 365 and 366: Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
Page 367 and 368: Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
Page 369 and 370: Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
Page 371 and 372: Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
Page 373 and 374: 11.1 | Introduction The majority of
Page 375 and 376: The internal stratification within
Page 377 and 378: Mediterranean zone This zone by def
Page 379 and 380: (5) Salinization and sodification I
Page 381 and 382: The real extent of diffuse soil con
Page 383 and 384: While there is no harmonised exhaus
Page 385 and 386: Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
Page 387 and 388: This is due to the country’s geo-
Page 389 and 390: Future changes in climate and land
Page 391 and 392: Considering an increase of industri
Page 393 and 394: Comparison of cultivated soils with
Page 395 and 396: Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
Page 397 and 398: The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
Page 399 and 400: Threat to soil function Soil sealin
Page 401 and 402: References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
Page 403 and 404: Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
Page 405 and 406: van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
Page 407 and 408: 12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
Page 409 and 410: Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
Page 411 and 412: Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
Page 413 and 414: humid. The most common soil groups
Page 415: 12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
Page 419 and 420: Primary forests have higher carbon
Page 421 and 422: Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
Page 423 and 424: The salinity of soils on the cultiv
Page 425 and 426: Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
Page 427 and 428: Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
Page 429 and 430: Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
Page 431 and 432: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 433 and 434: Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
Page 435 and 436: Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438: Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440: Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442: 13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444: The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
Page 445 and 446: Poverty within this system is exten
Page 447 and 448: Wind erosion A review conducted by
Page 449 and 450: 13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
Page 451 and 452: 13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454: 13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456: In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
Page 457 and 458: 2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460: Consequences of salinization Salini
Page 461 and 462: Rates of C change are influenced no
Page 463 and 464: Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
Page 465 and 466: 13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
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2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
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Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
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FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
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Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
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Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
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14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
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The area of forested land in Canada
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14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
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Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
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The drivers for soil sealing in Can
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14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
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Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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