World’s Soil Resources

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Wardle, D.A., Bardgett, R.D., Callaway, R.M. & van der Putten, W.H. 2011. Terrestrial ecosystem responses to species loss and gain. Science, 332: 1273-1277. Warren, S.G. & Wiscombe, W.J. 1980. A model for the spectral albedo of snow. II. Snow containing atmospheric aerosols. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, 37: 2734-2745. We i, J., Dirmeyer, P.A., Wisser, D., Bosilovich, M.G. & Mocko, D.M. 2013. Where Does the Irrigation Water Go? An Estimate of the Contribution of Irrigation to Precipitation Using MERRA. J. Hydrometeorology, 14: 275- 289. Weller, D.E. & Baker, M.E. 2014. Cropland Riparian Buffers Throughout Chesapeake Bay Watershed: Spatial patterns and effects on nitrate loads delivered to streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 50: 696-712. Wheater, H. & Evans, E. 2009. Land use, water management and future flood risk. Land Use Policy, 26: 251- 264. Wisser, D., Fekete, B.M., Vörösmarty, C.J. & Schumann, A.H. 2010. Reconstructing 20th century global hydrography: A contribution to the Global Terrestrial Network–Hydrology (GTN–H). Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 14: 1–24. WMO. 2005. Climate and Land Degradation. World Meteorological Organization. ISBN 92-63-10989-3 No. 989 Yang, X., & Post, W.M. 2011. Phosphorus transformations as a function of pedogenesis: A synthesis of soil phosphorus data using Hedley fractionation method. Biogeosciences, 8(10): 2907-2916. Yazbeck, C., Kloppmann, W., Cottier, R., Sahuquillo, J., Debotte, G. & Huel, G. 2005. Health impact evaluation of boron in drinking water: a geographical risk assessment in Northern France. Environ. Geochem. Health, 27: 419-427. Yermiyahu, U., Tal, A., Ben-Gal, A., Bar-Tal, A., Tarchitzky, J. & Lahav, O. 2007. Rethinking desalinated water quality and agriculture. Science, 318: 920-921. Zimmermann, B., Elsenbeer, H., & De Moraes, J.M. 2006. The influence of land-use changes on soil hydraulic properties: implications for runoff generation. Forest ecology and management, 222(1): 29-38. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report The impact of soil change on ecosystem services 222
8 | Governance and policy responses to soil change 8.1 | Introduction This chapter provides an overview of policy and governance responses to soil change. While most attention is given to issues at the global, regional and national levels, it is emphasized that effective responses nearly always have a basis in local action by individual land managers. Indeed, understanding the interconnectedness and the consequences of actions at each level is central to effective governance and policy. This book, and in particular the regional assessments of soil change (Chapters 9 to 16), demonstrate that at the global scale there is a qualitative appreciation of the pressures on soil resources but limited consistent evidence on their condition and trajectories of change. These assessments reveal that some of the world’s soil management challenges are immediate, obvious and serious – they arise partly because of the nature of soils in different regions and their associated history of land management. Other problems are more subtle but equally important in the long term – they require vigilance and a sustained policy response over decades. At present, few countries have effective policies to deal with these problems. In short, the world’s soils need to support at least a 70 percent increase in food production by 2050 (FAO, 2011) but there are some fundamental uncertainties. For example: Is there enough arable land with suitable soils to feed the world in coming decades? Are soil constraints partly responsible for the apparent yield plateau for major crops? Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Governance and policy responses to soil change 223
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
Page 213 and 214: Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
Page 215 and 216: 0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
Page 217 and 218: One approach to maintaining soil he
Page 219 and 220: Author Database Used Extent Estimat
Page 221 and 222: salinization. Safe design and opera
Page 223 and 224: The second limitation to prediction
Page 225 and 226: Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
Page 227 and 228: soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
Page 229 and 230: extremes several weeks in advance (
Page 231 and 232: The direct effect of aerosols on th
Page 233 and 234: capacity declines as N loads increa
Page 235 and 236: The concept of the critical load of
Page 237 and 238: as it indicates that management and
Page 239 and 240: 10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
Page 241 and 242: phenomena such as the onset of mass
Page 243 and 244: Although poorly explored, diversity
Page 245 and 246: affect the health of humans and ani
Page 247 and 248: Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
Page 249 and 250: Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
Page 251 and 252: Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
Page 253 and 254: Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
Page 255 and 256: Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
Page 257 and 258: Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
Page 259 and 260: Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
Page 261 and 262: Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
Page 263: UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
Page 267 and 268: contemporary challenge for policy m
Page 269 and 270: Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
Page 271 and 272: Ensure integrated management of pes
Page 273 and 274: 8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
Page 275 and 276: while in areas with fertile soils t
Page 277 and 278: In New Zealand, there are few regul
Page 279 and 280: The SEEA Central Framework identifi
Page 281 and 282: EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
Page 283 and 284: World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
Page 285 and 286: 9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
Page 287 and 288: Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
Page 289 and 290: The soils are strongly weathered an
Page 291 and 292: It exposes the soil to the erosive
Page 293 and 294: In many African cultures, harvestin
Page 295 and 296: Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
Page 297 and 298: Poverty: General poverty of the far
Page 299 and 300: Considering that over 80 percent of
Page 301 and 302: Extent of SOM decline in the region
Page 303 and 304: Many farmers do not follow recommen
Page 305 and 306: 9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
Page 307 and 308: Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
Page 309 and 310: management, it is important to note
Page 311 and 312: From 2006, several further national
Page 313 and 314: Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
Page 375 and 376:
The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
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The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
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Threat to soil function Soil sealin
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References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
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Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
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van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
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12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
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Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
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Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
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humid. The most common soil groups
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12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
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New regional information has been g
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Primary forests have higher carbon
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Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
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The salinity of soils on the cultiv
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Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
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Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
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Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
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Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
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Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438:
Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440:
Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442:
13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
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Poverty within this system is exten
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Wind erosion A review conducted by
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13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodifica
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13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454:
13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456:
In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
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2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460:
Consequences of salinization Salini
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Rates of C change are influenced no
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Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
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13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
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Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470:
2 - Land degradation assessment map
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Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
Page 473 and 474:
Page 475 and 476:
References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478:
Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480:
FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482:
Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484:
Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486:
14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488:
The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490:
14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492:
Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
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Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
Page 495 and 496:
The drivers for soil sealing in Can
Page 497 and 498:
14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
Page 507 and 508:
Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
Page 511 and 512:
Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
Page 513 and 514:
Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
Page 517 and 518:
USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
Page 519 and 520:
15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
Page 521 and 522:
of the country. The undulating and
Page 523 and 524:
The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
Page 525 and 526:
Country and land-use driver Implica
Page 527 and 528:
15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
Page 529 and 530:
egenerating soils. The South Island
Page 531 and 532:
New Zealand The importance of soil
Page 533 and 534:
Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
Page 535 and 536:
The main onsite effects of acidific
Page 537 and 538:
Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
Page 539 and 540:
Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
Page 541 and 542:
Canterbury region. There has been a
Page 543 and 544:
Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
Page 545 and 546:
Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
Page 547 and 548:
The management of water is also fun
Page 549 and 550:
The DustWatch network Australia has
Page 551 and 552:
Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
Page 553 and 554:
Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
Page 555 and 556:
Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
Page 557 and 558:
Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
Page 559 and 560:
Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
Page 561 and 562:
Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
Page 569 and 570:
Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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