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The Nile Valley system comprising around 2.63 million ha represents the most fertile lands in Egypt - and probably in the whole region. However, wind erosion and salinity have degraded the soil resource (El-Khole i, 2012). Sand encroachment and mobile dunes are now estimated to cover more than 16 percent of the total area of Egypt. These conditions have led to active sand encroachment on the fringes of the cultivated areas in most areas of the country. An estimated area of 0.76 million ha has been reported to be affected by sand encroachment and active dunes, causing reduction in productivity of as much as 25 percent. The annual soil loss was estimated to be about 1.0 million ha. In Jordan, the flat topography (
13.3.5 | Soil salinization/sodification Previous analyses (Hussein, 2001) revealed that 11.2 percent of the region’s soils are affected by various levels of soil salinization. Salt-affected soils vary in extent by country from 10-15 percent in Algeria to over 50 percent in Iraq. In the United Arab Emirates 33.6 percent of the area is salinized (EAD, 2009). About 50 percent of the reclaimed lands in the Euphrates plain in Iraq and Syria are seriously affected by salinization and waterlogging, and about 54 percent of the cultivated area in Saudi Arabia suffers from moderate salinization (CAMRE/UNEP/ ACSAD, 1996). In Egypt, 93 percent of the cultivated lands are affected by salinization and waterlogging. The salt-affected area in Iran has increased from 15.5 Mha in 1960 to 18 Mha in 1980, to 23 Mha in 1990, and to more than 25 Mha today (Qadir, Qureshi and Cheraghi, 2008). In the United Arab Emirates, areas along the coast sabkha (salt marshes or lagoonal deposits) are considered highly degraded due to high levels (28.8 dS m -1 ) of salinity (Abdelfattah, 2012). In the coastal region of the Abu Dhabi Emirate, salinity is more than 200 dS m -1 (Abdelfattah and Shahid, 2007). Saline and sodic soils are influenced by climate, agricultural practices, irrigation methods and policies related to land management (FAO, 1997). Low annual precipitation and high temperatures have also contributed to problems of salinity. In many countries of the region, where irrigation completely depends on groundwater, excessive irrigation has caused the formation of a shallow water table leading to increased salinization and degradation of the soil resource base. Yield reduction due to salinization and/or waterlogging amounts to 25 percent in Egypt, and has led to a complete loss of productivity and abandoned agricultural lands in several countries. From the very scattered information on the extent and characteristics of salt-affected soils, salinity and sodicity in the region is rapidly increasing, both in irrigated and non-irrigated areas. Salinity, sodicity or the combination of both in some countries of the region are seriously affecting productive areas such as the Nile Delta of Egypt, and the Euphrates Valley in Iraq and Syria. The situation is further complicated by association with problems of waterlogging and high CaCO 3 (up to 90 percent in United Arab Emirates, Al Barshamgi, 1997). 13.3.6 | Loss of soil biodiversity The impact of soil degradation on biodiversity has received little attention in the countries of the region and there is little information available. Nevertheless, it is estimated that the region is home to one-tenth of the recorded plant species worldwide or about 25 000 species of plants. Of these, 25 percent are endemic to the region, 10 percent are of medicinal value, and many are a source of food. This indicates the importance of the region as a store of genetic resources (Abahussain et al., 2002). The lack of proper conservation practices, overgrazing of herds of ruminants, and deforestation for fuel are causing serious losses of plant cover and of valuable genetic resources, including below-ground biodiversity that is rarely quantified in this region. Proper and sustainable utilization of plant species which yield valuable products could boost incomes and help reduce poverty amongst nomads and local settled populations. However, thousands of plant species and varieties have disappeared, and a further 800 plant species are threatened with extinction (Al-Eisawi, 1998) and this loss of plant species is likely to result in changes in soil biodiversity. Iran is renowned for having one of the richest plant reserves in the world. The country has some 12 000 species of plants, the majority of which are endemic (the Iranian National Action Programme). In the Elmalha area of Sudan, Bakheit (2011) studied the availability and distribution of famine foods and their role in times of famine. The study revealed endemic species that are considered as alternative foods in time of crisis but which are threatened by genetic erosion due to soil degradation. Soil degradation studies in South Sudan indicate the disappearance of palatable grasses such as Panicum turgidum and appearance of less palatable grasses such as Aristidia funiculata. The alien species now covers 40 percent of the pasture area, resulting in disappearance of many wild animals and decrease in biodiversity (Elfaig, Ibrahim and Jaafar, 2015). The study pointed out that drought, unsustainable use of forest and pasture, and increase in population pressure were the main causes of this environmental degradation. Status of the World’s Soil Resources | Main Report Regional Assessment of Soil Changes 407 in the Near East and North Africa
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Status of the World’s Main Report
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Dick, Warren Dos Santos Baptista, I
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Table of contents Disclaimer and co
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4.1 | Current land cover and land u
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6.5.5 | Responses | 126 6.6 | Soil
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7.7.3 | Soil and drought hazard | 1
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9.5.2 | South Africa | 266 9.6 | Su
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12.3.8 | Soil acidification | 373 1
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14.5.4 | Nutrient imbalance | 464 1
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Foreword This document presents the
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Preface | Scope of The State of the
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Acknowledgments The Status of the W
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CACILM CAMRE CAZRI CBD CBM-CFS CCAF
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FDNPS FFS FIA FSI FSR GAP GDP GEF G
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LU MA MADRPM MAF MAFF MDBA MDGS MEN
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SKM SLAM SLC SLM SMAP SMOS SOC SOE
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List of tables Table 1.1 | Chronolo
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List of figures Figure 2.1 | Overvi
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Figure 6.15 | Factors controlling s
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Figure 11.4 | Soil map and soil deg
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colored diaper associated with micr
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Preface The main objectives of The
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Global soil resources Coordinating
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The balance between the supporting
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1.2 | Basic concepts Prior to the 2
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Soil functions and ecosystem servic
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Climate regulation ∑ Regulation o
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2 | The role of soils in ecosystem
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2.1.2 | Nature and formation of soi
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2.1.4 | Factors influencing soil C
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In coming years, human population a
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Management practices need to be imp
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Another important role of soil wate
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The development of molecular techno
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Fierer, N., Ladau, J., Clemente, J.
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Sato, T., Qadir, M., Yamamoto, S.,
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3 | Global Soil Resources 3.1 | The
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Fridland’s was the first attempt
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Soil management has a considerable
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Accumulation of water soluble salts
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and increases infiltration, which r
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Figure 3.7 Soil suitability for cro
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3.7 | Global assessments of soil ch
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3.7.2 | LADA-GLADIS: the ecosystem
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References AFES. 2008. Réferentiel
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Neustuev, S.S. 1931. Elements of So
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75% crops Mixed >50% artificial 50-
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or increasing forest areas. Between
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Degrading land covers approximately
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70 60 (A) soil carbon 50 Soil
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A meta-analysis of 57 publications
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the nutrient inputs remain in the c
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Livestock density Livestock product
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4.3.3 | Land use change resulting i
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Impact of land take Land take, by i
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Photo by F. Macias Photo by J.C. Fe
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The formation of sulfidic material
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are however strongly dependent on t
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Figure 4.10 Global distribution of
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Bardgett, R.D. & van der Putten, W.
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Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque,
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Hettelingh, J.P., Sliggers, J., van
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Magnani, F., Mencuccini, M., Borghe
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Pugh, T.A.M., Arneth, A., Olin, S.,
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Van Aardenne, J.A., Dentener, F.J.,
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5 | Drivers of global soil change D
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5.1.2 | Urbanization In tandem with
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Large areas of arable land have bee
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most affected zone with 15 million
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(Brito et al., 2005). This has impl
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MA. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well
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6.1.2 | Status of Soil Erosion Over
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Figure 6.2 Location of active and f
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High soil erosion rates will also h
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Near-surface soil water content has
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6.2 | Global soil organic carbon st
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where the drainage in the 1960’s
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6.2.4 | Spatial distribution of car
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Vegetation Classes Topsoil Subsoil
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Soil Order Historic Area 10 6 ha Pr
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6.3 | Soil contamination status and
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and Uruguay. The number of exposed
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products increase soil acidity (Bar
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availability and inhibit plant grow
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In several Asian countries, a blend
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underlines the need for global-scal
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Figure 6.10 Urbanisation of the bes
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Figure 6.11 Major components of the
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Within the same continent, large va
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Box 6.2 | Nutrient balances in urba
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is among the top options in the por
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The quality of the soil’s water i
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At continental scales, the only pra
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Figure 6.16 (a) Global distribution
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Engineering in Japan, 5: 157-174. A
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Chadwick, D., Sommer, S., Thorman,
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Drechsel, Pay, Giordano, Mark, Gyie
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Gardner, T., Acosta-Martinez, V., C
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Hue, N.V. & Licudine, D.L. 1999. Am
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Liski, J., Ilvesniemi, H., Mäkelä
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Ng, H. 2010. Regional Assessment: S
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Reheis, M. 1997. Dust deposition do
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Smith, K.A., McTaggart, I.P. & Tsur
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United Nations. 2008. World Urbaniz
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Wood, M.K. & Blackburn, W.H. 1984.
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7 | The impact of soil change on ec
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Rockström et al. (2009) suggest we
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0.0 Response 1.0 Water quality Soil
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One approach to maintaining soil he
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Author Database Used Extent Estimat
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salinization. Safe design and opera
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The second limitation to prediction
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Figure 7.6 Some soil-related feedba
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soils occurs on largely unmanaged a
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extremes several weeks in advance (
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The direct effect of aerosols on th
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capacity declines as N loads increa
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The concept of the critical load of
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as it indicates that management and
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10-year frequency Ten-year frequenc
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phenomena such as the onset of mass
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Although poorly explored, diversity
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affect the health of humans and ani
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Bever, J.D., Westover, K.M. & Anton
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Damoah, R., Spichtinger, N., Servra
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Fenn, M.E., Poth, M.A., Aber, J.D.,
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Heimann, M. & Reichstein, M. 2008.
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Koster, R.D., Dirmeyer, P.A., Guo,
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Naeem, S., Bunker, D.E., Hector, A.
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Raufman, Y.J. & Fraser, R.S. 1997.
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Sheffield, J. & Wood, E.F. 2007. Pr
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UNEP. 2012. Policy Implications of
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8 | Governance and policy responses
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contemporary challenge for policy m
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Year 1982 FAO World Soil Charter 19
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Ensure integrated management of pes
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8.4 | Regional soil policies 8.4.1
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while in areas with fertile soils t
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In New Zealand, there are few regul
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The SEEA Central Framework identifi
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EC. 2013. Decision No 1386/2013/EU
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World Bank. 2011. Rising Global Int
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9.1 | Introduction Land degradation
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Figure 9.1 Agro-ecological zones in
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The soils are strongly weathered an
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It exposes the soil to the erosive
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In many African cultures, harvestin
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Maputo accounts for 83 percent of t
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Poverty: General poverty of the far
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Considering that over 80 percent of
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Extent of SOM decline in the region
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Many farmers do not follow recommen
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9.5 | Case studies 9.5.1 | Senegal
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Figure 9.7 Extent of dominant degra
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management, it is important to note
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From 2006, several further national
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Figure 9.12 Actual water erosion pr
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Figure 9.13 Topsoil pH derived from
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Figure 9.14 Change in land-cover be
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Waterlogging Compaction Soil sealin
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Birru, T.C. 2002. Organic matter re
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Hein, L. & De Ridder, N. 2006. Dese
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Meyer, J.H., Harding, R., Rampersad
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Smith P. 2008. Soil organic carbon
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10 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
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Figure 10.1 Length of the available
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Figure 10.2 Threats to soils in the
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10.3.4 | Soil acidification There i
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In paddy rice cultivation and uplan
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10.3.10 | Sealing and capping Seali
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practices. On low slopes, agronomic
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(Valentin et al., 2008). For peatla
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in Laos (59 kg N ha -1 ). On the ot
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Sub-Regions. Inceptisols are the do
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10.5.2 | Case study for Indonesia T
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Peat fire is another important proc
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An agricultural soil monitoring pro
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The Basic Soil-Environmental Monito
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Figure 10.8 Estimate CH 4 emission
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Threat to soil function Soil erosio
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References Aggarwal, G.C., Sidhu, A
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FAO. 2012. FAOSTAT. Rome, FAO. (Als
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Kukal, S.S. & Aggarwal, G.C. 2003.
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Piao, S., Fang, J., Ciais, P., Peyl
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Taniyama, I. 2003. Study of soil fa
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Zhao, Y., Duan, L., Xing, J., Larss
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11.1 | Introduction The majority of
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The internal stratification within
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Mediterranean zone This zone by def
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(5) Salinization and sodification I
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The real extent of diffuse soil con
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While there is no harmonised exhaus
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Prepared by I. Alyabina Figure 11.2
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This is due to the country’s geo-
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Future changes in climate and land
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Considering an increase of industri
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Comparison of cultivated soils with
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Figure 11.3 Some types and extent o
Page 397 and 398: The plains in the basins of Amu Dar
Page 399 and 400: Threat to soil function Soil sealin
Page 401 and 402: References Acosta, J.A., Faz, A., J
Page 403 and 404: Inisheva, L.I. (ed.). 2005. Concept
Page 405 and 406: van Lynden, G.W.J. 1997. Guidelines
Page 407 and 408: 12.1 | Introduction This chapter di
Page 409 and 410: Figure 12.1 Biomes in Latin America
Page 411 and 412: Temperate Grasslands, Savannahs and
Page 413 and 414: humid. The most common soil groups
Page 415 and 416: 12.3.6 | Compaction In LAC there ar
Page 417 and 418: New regional information has been g
Page 419 and 420: Primary forests have higher carbon
Page 421 and 422: Prepared by C. Cruz-Gaistardo Figur
Page 423 and 424: The salinity of soils on the cultiv
Page 425 and 426: Figure 12.6 Expansion of the agricu
Page 427 and 428: Figure 12.7 Percentage of areas aff
Page 429 and 430: Figure 12.8 Predominant types of la
Page 431 and 432: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 433 and 434: Boddey, R.M., Alves, B.J.R, Jantali
Page 435 and 436: Gardi, C., Angelini, M., Barceló,
Page 437 and 438: Nogueira, M.A., Albino, U.B., Brand
Page 439 and 440: Spavorek, G., Bemdes, G., Barreto,
Page 441 and 442: 13 | Regional Assessment of Soil Ch
Page 443 and 444: The Arab Centre for the Study of Ar
Page 445 and 446: Poverty within this system is exten
Page 447: Wind erosion A review conducted by
Page 451 and 452: 13.3.9 | Compaction Soil compaction
Page 453 and 454: 13.4 | Major soil threats in the re
Page 455 and 456: In Sudan, studies showed that in ar
Page 457 and 458: 2002). There are few studies on the
Page 459 and 460: Consequences of salinization Salini
Page 461 and 462: Rates of C change are influenced no
Page 463 and 464: Figure 13.3 Layout of the project s
Page 465 and 466: 13.5 | Case studies 13.5.1 | Case s
Page 467 and 468: Studies show that both climatic and
Page 469 and 470: 2 - Land degradation assessment map
Page 471 and 472: Figure 13.9 Type of ecosystem servi
Page 473 and 474: Threat to soil function Soil erosio
Page 475 and 476: References Abahussain, A.A., Abdu,
Page 477 and 478: Badraoui, M. 1998. Effects of inten
Page 479 and 480: FAO. 2004. Regional Workshop on Pro
Page 481 and 482: Mamdouh Nasr. 1999. Assessing Deser
Page 483 and 484: Yaghi, B. & Abdul-Wahab, S.A. 2004.
Page 485 and 486: 14.1 | Introduction Although Canada
Page 487 and 488: The area of forested land in Canada
Page 489 and 490: 14.3 | Soil threats This section fo
Page 491 and 492: Figure 14.2 Map of Superfund sites
Page 493 and 494: Figure 14.3 Areas in United States
Page 495 and 496: The drivers for soil sealing in Can
Page 497 and 498: 14.4.1 | Soil erosion Soil erosion
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The relationship between soil prope
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14.4.4 | Soil biodiversity Soil bio
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Figure 14.5 Risk of water erosion i
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Figure 14.7 Soil organic carbon cha
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Figure 14.8 Residual soil N in Cana
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14.6 | Conclusions and recommendati
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Compaction Sealing and land take Sa
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Clearwater, R.L., Martin, T., Hoppe
Page 515 and 516:
Kurz, W.A., Dymond, C.C., White, T.
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USDA. 2011. Resource Conservation A
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15.1 | Introduction The Southwest P
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of the country. The undulating and
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The broad area of Near Oceania (inc
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Country and land-use driver Implica
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15.5 | Threats to soils in the regi
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egenerating soils. The South Island
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New Zealand The importance of soil
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Fertilizers Impurities in fertilize
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The main onsite effects of acidific
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Saltwater intrusion Saltwater intru
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Phosphorus is naturally deficient a
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Canterbury region. There has been a
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Figure 15.3 (a) Trends in winter ra
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Figure 15.5 Agricultural lime sales
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The management of water is also fun
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The DustWatch network Australia has
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Soil sealing and capping Contaminat
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Bui, E.N., Hancock, G.J. & Wilkinso
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Hartemink, A.E. 1998b. Acidificatio
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Moorehead, A. (ed.). 2011. Forests
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Robertson, M.J., George, R.J., O’
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Wilson, B.R. & Lonergan, V.E. 2013.
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16.1 | Antarctic soils and environm
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16.3 | Response All activities in A
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IAATO. 2014. Tourism statistics. In
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Annex | Soil groups, characteristic
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a Photo by C. Tarnocai b Photo by S
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Figure A 2 (a) An Anthrosol (Plagge
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a Photo by P. Charzyński Figure A
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a Photo by A. Filaretova b Photo by
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Figure A 5 (a) A Leptosol profile i
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a Photo by L. Wilding b Photo by L.
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Figure A 7 (a) A Solonetz profile a
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a Photo by T. Toth b Photo by S. Kh
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Figure A 9 (a) A Podzol profile and
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FERRALSOLS (OXISOLS) Ferralsols (Fi
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NITISOLS (Alfisols, Ultisols, Incep
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PLINTHOSOLS (Plinthic sub-groups) P
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PLANOSOLS (Albaqualfs, Albaquults a
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GLEYSOLS (Aquic suborder and Endoaq
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STAGNOSOLS (Aquic Suborders and Epi
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ANDOSOLS (ANDISOLS) Andosols (Figur
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5 | Soils with accumulation of orga
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KASTANOZEMS (Ustolls and Xerolls) K
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PHAEOZEMS (Udolls and Albolls) Phae
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UMBRISOLS (Umbric Great Group in Aq
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6 | Soils with accumulation of mode
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CALCISOLS (Calcids, Argids, Cambids
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GYPSISOLS (Gypsids) Gypsisols are c
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7 | Soils with a clay-enriched subs
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ACRISOLS (Kan- great groups of Ulti
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LIXISOLS (Kan - great groups of Alf
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ALISOLS (Ultisols with an argillic
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LUVISOLS (Alfisols with an argillic
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8 | Soils with little or no profile
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REGOSOLS (Orthents) Regisols are th
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ARENOSOLS (Psamments) Arenosols are
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FLUVISOLS (Fluvents, Fluv-Subroups)
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9 | Permanently flooded soils WASSE
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Kastanozems Histosols Gypsisols Gre
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Jones, A., Breuning-Madsen, H., Bro
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Glossary of technical terms Aerobic
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Topsoil: the upper part of a natura
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Broll, Gabrielle Bruulsma, Tom Bunn
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Leys, John Lobb, David Ma, Lin Maci
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Urquiaga Caballero, Segundo Urquiza
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World’s Soil Resources

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