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In the long run, the wartime rationing of rice had a two-sided effect
on consumption practices in Japan. On the one hand, it forced urban
consumers to rely on staples other than rice, in particular wheat flour (in
the form of noodles and bread) and potatoes. For example, between 1934
and 1955 the total consumption of wheat in Japan rose threefold, from
1,180,000 to 3,620,000 tonnes. 39 The incorporation of noodle dishes of
Chinese origin, such as rāmen and yakisoba, in the canon of national cuisine
was sustained by the wartime food shortage. Even culinary purists,
such as the Society for Research into Japanese Cuisine – an association of
professional chefs founded in 1930 for the sake of protecting Japanese
cuisine from Western influences – had no other choice but to embrace
substitute staples. Among the winning dishes in the ‘Substitute Food
Contest’ held by the association in September 1940 were buttered toast
sprinkled with shrimp powder, deep-fried noodles in curry sauce, and
potato pancake sandwiches. 40
It is generally claimed that the American occupation (1945–52) was
chiefly responsible for the spread of wheat-based dishes in Japan. The
fact that the food aid consisted mainly of flour undoubtedly contributed
to the popularization of bread in Japan. It must be stressed, however, that
American initiatives sustained a tendency that had become increasingly
pronounced since the late 1930s. Although a handful of cookery books with
American recipes were published already in the late 1940s, the real impact
of American food culture on Japan began in the 1970s with the expansion
of fast-food and other restaurant chains and convenience stores (see chapter
Seven). Most food-related publications issued during the 1950s show a clear
continuity with the 1940s and, after the food supply situation stabilized,
with the 1930s.
Along with propelling the consumption of staples other than rice
among urban consumers, the nationwide rationing of rice had the opposite
effect on social groups that hitherto could not afford rice as a daily staple,
such as peasants and urban poor. In order to ensure the smooth functioning
of essential war industries such as mining, shipbuilding and the iron
and steel industry, supplementary rations (on the top of the standard 2.3
gō) were allotted to workers employed in these industries. 41 Between 1937
and 1944 about two million peasants switched to lucrative employment in
the war industries. Many also became part-time farmers, since these industries
began to relocate their factories to rural areas, which were less threatened
by air raids. Farm families whose members had supplementary jobs
in the industry increased from 31.4 per cent in 1940 to 62.7 per cent in
1944. 42 Moreover, the introduction in 1941 of the system of dual-pricing
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