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hishio, is recorded to have been used in Japan as early as the eighth century ad. Miso became the staple in the Japanese diet since the thirteenth century. Soy sauce similar to the contemporary product was based on a Chinese recipe that was transmitted to Japan in the seventeenth century. 6 The use of chopsticks and the structure of the Japanese meal were also largely influenced by the civilization of ancient China. However, by the mid-nineteenth century, centuries after their introduction, Chinese elements had become fully integrated in local consumption patterns and entirely stripped of their foreign connotations. With a few exceptions, such as the exclusive Japanese-Chinese style of cooking (shippoku ryōri) that was developed during the eighteenth century in the merchant enclave of Nagasaki, pre-modern Japanese never really tasted Chinese food. 7 It was during the 1920s and ’30s, when the rhetoric of imperialist expansionism began to dominate public discourse, that Chinese cuisine came to be widely consumed in Japan. The formation of the Japanese Empire began in 1876 with Japan forcing neighbouring Korea to open ports to trade, in a fashion resembling the tactics of Commodore Perry two decades earlier (see chapter One). The victory in the Sino-Japanese War in 1895 provided Japan with its first major colony – the island of Formosa (Taiwan). Korea became Japan’s protectorate ten years later and was officially colonized in 1910. Taiwan and Korea constituted Japan’s two major colonies before the establishment in 1932 of the Japanese-run puppet state of Manchukuo. In 1945 Japan lost all its colonies, except for the neighbouring islands of Hokkaido and Ryūkyū (Okinawa), which were seized shortly after the Meiji Restoration. 8 However, the colonial legacy continued to influence Japanese food habits even after the collapse of the empire. More than a million Japanese who resided in Korea, Taiwan, Manchuria and other Chinese territories under Japan’s domination, not to mention hundreds of thousands of soldiers who fought on the continent, acquired a taste for foreign food and played a critical role in its popularization in post-war Japan. For example, returnees from Manchukuo were responsible for the dissemination of northern Chinese dishes, such as gyōza dumplings. They found themselves jobless in the midst of devastation and food shortages, and many embarked on the making and selling of gyōza to their hungry customers. 9 Gyōza were particularly suited to the circumstances of wartime Japan, since they were made of wheat flour which was easier to acquire than rice and practically anything qualified as stuffing. In a survey conducted in 2002 among 15,000 respondents, gyōza ended up third among the dishes most frequently served at dinner tables in contemporary Japan. 10 140
Fried gyōza and rāmen noodles rank among the most popular dishes in contemporary Japan. The popularization of other Chinese dishes in Japan dates further back than that of gyōza, however. The influx of Westerners into Yokohama, Nagasaki and Kobe during the 1860s set the stage for the diffusion of Chinese cuisine in modern Japan. Although the Chinese had no legal right to remain in Japan before the first Sino-Japanese treaty was concluded in 1871, they were brought in under the legal protection of Western powers. Western merchants relied heavily on their Chinese staff – servants, clerks and middle-men – to run the households and enterprises that they relocated from the China coast. During the 1870s and ’80s independent Chinese merchants began to settle in Japan as well, so that Chinese soon constituted the majority of the foreign population residing in the ports. By 1890, for example, 200 Chinese firms operated in Yokohama, compared to slightly more than 100 firms from all other nationalities combined. Most 141
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Modern Japanese Cuisine Food, Power
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Modern Japanese Cuisine Food, Power
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Contents Introduction 7 1 Western F
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A contemporary home meal. (Chikuzen
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multiculturalism in contemporary Ja
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themselves experts on it. They all
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entremets Pudding à la Diplomate M
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controlled the emperor. The only st
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Eating for ‘Civilization and Enli
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the daily life of the Palace at all
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The new faces, the old historical n
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was to become the crucial strategy
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concern ‘to preserve draft animal
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various types of meat indicates tha
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Westerners slaughtering and butcher
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Japanese enjoying beef stew, from K
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of the meat-eating taboo fitted per
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Foreign settlement house in Yokoham
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My health is miserable, my appetite
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Dining-room of the Grand Hotel in Y
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William Gray Dixon (1854-1928), who
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opened in 1863, may have been prece
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Prices of set menus at top Western-
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Poached eggs Omelettes Beefsteak Co
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uilding blocks for the new dining s
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Lunch room at the Takashimaya depar
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interconnectedness between food-pro
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Three Strengthening the Military Fa
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further inhibited their diffusion.
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the hope of increasing sales, Ichit
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in Meiji Japan. Yanagisawa Sakichi
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dwarfish - too small, in fact, for
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quo, by discarding the prevailing p
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usually consisted of a bowl of rice
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Modernizing Military Catering Berib
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availability of foodstuffs. Moreove
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Fried rice Boiled rice and barley s
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were easiest to procure on location
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in the military was also far above
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division (and its location) Imperia
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homogenizing effect of industrially
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Conscripts at table, 1938. new tast
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Soldiers preparing rice balls, 1937
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Although serving the interests of t
Page 92 and 93: ‘A Page from the Accounting Book
Page 94 and 95: A middle-class family at dinner, a
Page 96 and 97: An urban working family at a shared
Page 98 and 99: An issue of the magazine Fujin zass
Page 100 and 101: ecame a standard sight at Western-i
Page 102 and 103: they affected the cooking practices
Page 104 and 105: to try new recipes and made homemak
Page 106 and 107: A weekly menu (side dishes to be se
Page 108 and 109: An array of methods was employed by
Page 110 and 111: were sweet azuki bean soup with mil
Page 112 and 113: The style is known nowadays under t
Page 114 and 115: However, the principles of beauty o
Page 116 and 117: Japanese home cookery for future ge
Page 118 and 119: City dwellers planting vegetables b
Page 120 and 121: The ‘Rising Sun Lunch Box’ (Hin
Page 122 and 123: conscription made modern nation sta
Page 124 and 125: made public on a daily basis by the
Page 126 and 127: menus - were propagated as an examp
Page 128 and 129: Ship’s biscuits factory, c. 1940s
Page 130 and 131: than rice (which became increasingl
Page 132 and 133: In the long run, the wartime ration
Page 134 and 135: Wartime communal cooking provided a
Page 136 and 137: Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World
Page 138 and 139: 1955 Eiyō no seirigaku [Physiology
Page 140 and 141: Six The Culinary Consequences of Ja
Page 144 and 145: A Chinese servant waiting on Wester
Page 146 and 147: Chinatown restaurant. Only a handfu
Page 148 and 149: A typical rāmen restaurant in rura
Page 150 and 151: kyōkasho (‘Catering Textbook for
Page 152 and 153: was supplied, largely illegally, by
Page 154 and 155: historically embedded than is gener
Page 156 and 157: Kimch’i production in Japan, 1980
Page 158 and 159: Seven Multiple Circuits of Affluenc
Page 160 and 161: School lunch centred on bread and m
Page 162 and 163: The emergence of a consumer market
Page 164 and 165: the catering departments of each sc
Page 166 and 167: Japan’s school lunch program, whi
Page 168 and 169: of the most powerful mechanisms of
Page 170 and 171: A kiosk with food souvenirs is indi
Page 172 and 173: fact that it began to offer to thei
Page 174 and 175: One of the characteristic features
Page 176 and 177: Home Buddhist altar with offerings
Page 178 and 179: mixture of old and new, with clear
Page 180 and 181: ather works as the basic social bon
Page 182 and 183: processes. Examining the strategies
Page 184 and 185: the sugar plantations of Hawai’i,
Page 186 and 187: ‘Local’ sushi varieties of the
Page 188 and 189: Benihana restaurants operate a sush
Page 190 and 191: plate in front of you, chopped up i
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their enterprises a financial boost
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The late Hara Yōichi, the owner of
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obots in sushi making, and that in
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Yo!Sushi outlet on the concourse of
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A Wagamama menu, 2005.
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References Introduction 1 Michael A
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6 Ōhama and Yoshihara, Edo, Tōky
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54 John Mertz, Novel Japanese: Spac
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kigen, pp. 74, 80. 35 Basil H. Cham
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A Research Review, ed. H. J. Teuteb
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Kinenkai, ed., Sūji de miru Nihon
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Japan,, pp. 65, 93. 10 Sand, House
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61 Kumakura Isao, ‘Tea and Japan
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19 Imada Setsuko, ‘Dainiji sekai
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5 Noguchi Hokugen, ‘Shokumotsu ch
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also Chōsen Sōtokufu Shokusankyok
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Shokuryō Shinbunsha (Tokyo, 1990),
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ed. K. J. Cwiertka with B.C.A. Walr
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Japan: The Experience of Japan’s
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Glossary agemono ‘deep-fried dish
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with a variety of fillings and roll
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mirin and sugar: before being eaten
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Marianne Lien and Brigitte Nerlich,
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Agricultural Experiment Stations 58
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hotels, Western-style 39-40 Fujiya
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First Opium 17 Korean 136, 156, 187
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