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lowing year and remained in force for four decades. 12 Their ‘unequal’
nature derived from the fact that they imposed a semi-colonial status on
Japan, since they included extra-territoriality by which nationals residing
in Japan came under the legal jurisdiction of their own countries’ consuls.
The treaties also provided for the establishment of designated settlements
for foreigners in the so-called treaty ports (Hakodate, Nagasaki, Kanagawa,
Niigata and Hyōgo), in which they could engage in international trade
under the privileged tariffs specified by the treaties. The national humiliation
brought about by the treaties became the driving force behind the
political activism that ultimately led to the Meiji Restoration of 1868. The
global reach of Western imperialism continued to play a central role in
the course of Japanese history for the remaining part of the century – it
provided ‘the context in which the Meiji leaders acted and a model for
them to follow’. 13
The defeat of China by the British in the First Opium War
(1839–42) and the shock of the forced ‘opening’ of Japan by Perry made
many progressive Japanese intellectuals realize that China was no longer
the leading force in Asia, but was replaced by the technologically and
militarily advanced Western powers. The Iwakura Mission (1871–3), a large
diplomatic mission sent to Europe and the United States to renegotiate the
‘unequal treaties’, further convinced the Meiji leaders that Japan still had
far to go before it would be in a position to negotiate with Western powers
on equal terms. The chief aim of the mission failed, but its members were
able to see with their own eyes the technological advancement behind
global Western domination.
Two conclusions were drawn from these experiences. First, Japan
was to avoid being confused with China or Asia in Western eyes and
instead elevate its status in the international arena through extensive
Westernization. Second, the country was to be modernized by reforming
its legal and political system and industrializing its economy based on
Western models. To achieve this, an ambitious agenda of wide-ranging,
radical reforms that were jointly coined under the term ‘civilization and
enlightenment’ (bunmei kaika) was generated. Western-style dining became
an integral part of the project.
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