Industrialised, Integrated, Intelligent sustainable Construction - I3con

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SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION HANDBOOK 2 tools is not unknown in the construction industry, the tools being used (e.g. entity-based Computer- Aided Design (CAD)) have not been able to deliver the most satisfactory results. This is because entity-based CAD and allied applications largely support fragmented processes. Individual stakeholders design and input project data independently and without commitment to the interests of other stakeholders. Moreover, apart from the structural limitations that prevent entity-based CAD applications from triggering the needed drivers of success in integrated design systems, these applications also have major challenges with spatiality and information flow. Several reports have identified the potential of building information modelling (BIM) in addressing both the limitations of CAD and revolutionising the entire design, construction and facilities management processes. According to (Luciani 2008), the revolution caused by BIM potentials, though new and not fully conceptualized, are truly radical and have started rebranding the structure of construction markets. However, some limitations also exist in the realization of all BIM promises. According to (Gu et al. 2008; Succar 2009), its adoption is still slow, and there is neither the definitive understanding of all disciplines regarding BIM capabilities, nor what is in it for their roles in a BIMpropelled revolution; or the comprehensive understanding of market drivers of clients’ interests in a BIM market. Against these, BIM serves as a digital information repository wherein stakeholders are able to integrate, share data and values to create object-oriented designs and overcome all the limitations of entity-based CAD. Collaboration has been identified as one of the most important attributes of BIM that drive project performance (Gu et al. 2008 ; Lottaz et al. 2000). This chapter aims to review and mirror what collaboration means to the industry and its possible outcomes in virtual environments using some propositions of game theory; prisoner’s dilemma, pareto optima and hawk-dove. 94 Objectives The objectives of the study are as follows: (1) To review the advantages of collaboration in integrated systems in design and construction processes. (2) To predict the implications of collaboration in different gaming scenarios. CAD and collaboration The construction industry has witnessed a significant improvement in the adoption of information technology (IT) innovations in the past decades (Sarshar et al. 2002). According to (Doherty 1997; Samuelson 2002), entity-based CAD and allied applications have been a significant necessity of professional service delivery in the industry since the last century. CAD has generally been adopted as an equitable replacement for manual design systems. It has also been used as a reputable tool for research and in academic and professional training. Moreover, an unprecedented surge in sales of CAD in the last decade is a significant indication that CAD revolution in the industry is real (Langdon 2002). The industry has witnessed tremendous improvements over manual conventions as the use of CAD becomes more popular. These improvements and merits, according to (McKinney and Fischer 1998; Winch and Deeth 1994), include improved speed, accuracy, quality, storage and transmission of design data, and manipulative features of electronic document management systems. Another advantage (Howard et al. (1998) is that CAD applications can instigate the exchange of digital information and integrated systems, which could drive success in certain aspects of design and construction processes. However, many schools of thought have argued that entity-based CAD systems also have marked limitations. Marir et al (1998) claimed that CAD systems support fragmented processes because different entity-based CAD applications do not communicate with each other. It also triggers information gaps between users as the methodology for compromising interface barriers is still a major challenge in the industry. Thus, whilst individual users enter discipline-specific data into CAD integrated systems, design and project information are still vulnerable to inadequacies, conflicts and errors.
HANDBOOK 2 SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION Other industry reports, such as (Aranda et al. 2008b; Maher 2008; Succar 2009), have argued that entity-based CAD applications do lack the frameworks for facilitating simultaneous collaboration, and the integration of robust information into project databases. These CAD applications also feature primitive elements such as lines and splines instead of object-oriented (o-o) models, and other shortcomings that often become Achilles heels to the development processes and performance of construction infrastructures. Ankrah and Proverbs (2005) argued that performance of construction infrastructures depends largely on stakeholders’ will and commitment to adopt best practices through thorough integration, value sharing, collaboration, effective communication and ease of manipulating designs in complex spatio-temporal dimensions. Many of the major limitations in entity-based CAD often render designs vulnerable to inordinate errors, conflict of interest and fragmentation of information between stakeholders in design, procurement and facilities management processes. Some authors have also reported that these limitations support conventional fragmented processes, against collaboration which has been established as a vitally important component of integrated system. According to (Kalay 2001), collaboration is not limited to superficial or semi-structured co-ordination of project teams, rather it involves uniformity in the nature of data being created and transmitted in integrated system, and compliance with structured mechanisms for servicing the entire digital systems under which they operate. While investigating the drivers of effective collaboration in virtual teams, (Nikas et al. 2007; Rezgui 2007) argued that partial adoption of integrated technologies and wanton compromise of the ethos of collaboration could spur tragic outcomes on project expectations. The nature of these outcomes and the potential impact of total or partial breakdown in collaboration have not received adequate attention in existing literatures. Moreover, (Han et al. 2007) also identified the industry’s reluctance to adopt BIM, the limitations of entity-based CAD and allied applications being used; and the compatibility of these applications with integrated systems as some of the impediments to effective collaboration in virtual teams. There are three possibilities in collaboration, and they shall be used in later discussions as follows: 1. Perfect cooperation between parties to engage all the ethos of collaboration in BIM environment. This scenario will be referred to as perfect collaboration. 2. Partial cooperation between parties to engage the ethos of collaboration i.e. few component players of integrated systems may have all the requisite facilities and engage in BIM deployment while others do not have the framework to drive the system. The phenomenon shall be referred to as partial collaboration. 3. Outright lack of cooperation by stakeholders to collaborate. This scenario shall be referred to as null cooperation in the later part of this study. This concept shall be addressed as non collaboration. Some other studies have demonstrated the potential of BIM in facilitating digital integrated systems that can overcome the limitations of entity-based CAD systems, and provide reliable platforms for facilitating enduring performance of construction projects in their entire lifecycles (Moses et al. 2008; Nakamura et al. 2006). However, BIM is an end in itself; it does not guarantee automatic results when deployed on every project until its functional drivers are activated appropriately. Meeting these requirements to service the performance of virtual environments has been a major challenge in BIM adoption. These requirements include appropriate skills (Sher et al. 2009) and compliant software applications (Tse et al. 2005) as well as the enduring spirit of collaboration (Aranda et al. 2008b). The goal of this chapter therefore is to elicit perfect collaboration as an important driver of success in the BIM environment. There are three main sections in this study: the first section reviews collaboration platforms in BIM, the second section exemplifies the applications of game theory in virtual environments, and lastly; the third section discusses possible outcomes of collaboration in specific scenarios through gaming lenses. 95
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Industrialised, Integrated, Intelligent sustainable Construction - I3con

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