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published advocating that Clovis peoples might
be the first New World immigrants. One, proposed
by C. V. Haynes (1978), is based on a
cultural-technological model and on the lack of
conclusive data to the contrary, while the other
is based on a predator-prey-ecological model
(Martin, 1973).
C. Haynes (1978:130) points out that many of
the technological traits found in Clovis, such as
spurred end scrapers, blades, burins, bifacial reduction
techniques for working stone, shaft
straighteners and cylindrical bone tools, and the
use of red ochre may have been derived from the
late Paleolithic cultures of Eurasia. In the absence
of any obvious precursors, he suggests that Clovis
people arrived in the New World already
equipped with an Eurasian paleolithic tool kit at
some time between 12,000 and 13,000 years ago.
In two separate papers, however, Haynes (1969,
1970) suggests that man may have been in North
America at least 30,000 years ago and offers a
three-period scheme consisting of an early Paleo-
Indian stage (greater than 30,000 years old), a
middle stage (30,000 to 12,000 years ago), and a
late period (12,000 and 7,000 years ago). If so,
then scientifically sound evidence for early stages
should eventually be found, and can only be
verified by an objective examination of stratified
sites of the appropriate age.
The other hypothesis calling for a later arrival
of man is that of the "Pleistocene Overkill" model
(Martin, 1973). It proposes that man entered the
New World around 13,000 years ago with a fully
developed Upper Paleolithic tool kit equipped to
exploit efficiently a new game range; the new
arrivals then swept rapidly across North and
South America, completely exterminating many
of the large animals that could not resist humans
as predators.
Computer simulation models of human advance
presented by Mosimann and Martin (1975)
support this overkill hypothesis; but the entire
model is incongruous with basic biological
(Odum, 1971) and cultural (Clark, 1968) theories
of natural population expansion. A more logical
explanation of Pleistocene faunal extinction is
that many factors, including hunting by man,
were responsible for the demise of these species.
The primary cause was no doubt the effects of
climatic changes at the end of the Wisconsinan
glaciation, which sufficiently altered habitats so
that many species, including some that were not
hunted by man, became extinct (Graham,
1979:65).
Since there are no known stone projectile points
universally accepted as being older than Clovis,
some archeologists have proposed a "pre-projectile
point" horizon (Krieger, 1964; Willey, 1971).
This was first advocated by Krieger (1964:42-51)
who contended that people with a core and flake
technology, derived from Asiatic sources, were
the first to exploit the New World. Unfortunately,
the archeological complexes from which Krieger's
model was generated did not come from wellcontrolled
or excavated sites. None of Krieger's
listed sites can be attributed either to a cultural
stage or to a chronological age because most
represent quarry detritus.
Miiller-Beck (1966), comparing North American
assemblages to those from Eurasian collections,
divides the Paleo-Indian culture into two
distinct technological traditions. The first, characterized
by a specialized hunting technology
utilizing bifacial projectile points, developed on
the open plains of Central Europe during early
Upper Pleistocene. It was basically a continuation
of the hand-ax traditions, contemporaneous with
Mousteroid bifacial and flake-tool industries. The
artifact assemblage from the Kostyenki site in the
Ukraine is identified specifically as the Old World
cultural complex that is typologically closest to
the older Llano complex of North America (including
Clovis and Sandia). These early industries
with specialized projectile points supposedly
expanded into the New World between 28,000
and 26,000 years ago. The second invasion, about
11,000 years ago, was primarily that of the Aurignacoid
industries. These cultures, having basically
a core-blade-burin industry, formed the
basis of the later Eskimo and Aleut cultures.
Few data support a spread of complexes with
bifacial projectile points down the ice-free corri-