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208 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY that natural events, such as boulder fracturing in streams or trampling by animals, as well as carnivore alteration, can break bones in a manner suggestive of human butchering. At Dutton and Selby, however, there are no boulders in the loessial soils, and the deposition of these soils reflects a low energy water system. It is further possible that the bones were trampled by animals coming to water, but it seems unbelievable that animals could break the bones in such consistent patterns. The location of the center of gravity near the distal end of the fractured specimens may have caused them to sink into wet sediments with only the proximal or pointed end exposed. These exposed ends may then have subsequently been polished by abrasion from water or windborne particles, giving the impression that the bones were used as tools. Carnivore alteration can also spirally fracture bone (Sutcliffe, 1970; G. Haynes, 1978, 1980; Hill, 1975; Buckland, 1822). Several studies, including the work of Gary Haynes, currently of the <strong>Smithsonian</strong>, promise to clarify this matter. To date these studies have not shown that carnivores can produce large impact depressions, or flake bones like those recovered at Dutton, Selby, or Old Crow. However, these data remain questionable until additional research in bone modification is complete. Lamb Spring, located near the South Platte River in Douglas County, Colorado, also may be pre-Clovis. Wedel (1965) excavated the site in 1961 and in a layer below a Cody bison kill, found Pleistocene faunal remains, including mammoth, bison, and camel, which dated to around 13,000 years old. Because no stone artifacts were found in the lowest level, excavation was terminated. Recently, I noted that many of the bones from the lowest level were broken in a manner similar to those from Dutton and Selby. Consequently, the site warranted further investigation. In 1979, a 33-pound boulder associated with flaked mammoth bone was found in one of the trenches. Since there are no boulders elsewhere at the site, I believe that it was probably brought there for bone processing. Further excavations at this site in 1980 yielded additional data (Stanford, 1981). Friesenhahn Cave, near Austin, Texas, yielded several chert flakes and a human molar, as well as Pleistocene fauna (Evans, 1961:21). This site has often been mentioned as possibly pre-Clovis (MacNeish, 1978, 1979a). However, subsequent analysis of the deposits by Russell Graham (1976) has demonstrated that the cave was occupied by Scimitar cats rather than by man. All of the faunal remains from this deposit show evidence of having been chewed by these large, lionlike cats. Further, all of the chert flakes were found in a talus cone directly below the cave opening and are presumed to have washed into the cave from an extensive occupation found on the ground surface around the opening. It is Graham's conclusion that the cave was not occupied by man. Another Texas site that should be discussed is the Levi Rock Shelter (Alexander, 1963). This site has several occupation levels, with two presumed pre-Clovis levels underlying an occupation that has been identified as Clovis (Alexander, personal communication). The earliest pre-Clovis level is cemented into the back of the cave by a travertine deposit and was partially eroded. The subsequent pre-Clovis occupation occurs in unconsolidated cave fall and detritus. Stone tools in the form of utilized flakes were recovered from these older units. The stratigraphy of this site is extremely complex and is complicated by a tremendous mass of unconsolidated roof-fall, which makes interpretations of occupation horizons nearly impossible. The cave travertine is currently being deposited along the walls of the rock shelter, and its interface with recent unconsolidated fill cannot be considered a time horizon marker. Future work should explore more of these early occupation levels and clarify the relationship between these geologic phenomena and the various occupations of the cave. The Lewisville site in Denton County, Texas, was first excavated by R. King Harris and Wilson Crook between 1951 and 1957 (Crook and Harris, 1957). Twenty-one burned areas were identified
NUMBER 30 209 as hearths, along with several artifacts including a Clovis point, a chopper, and several flake tools. Faunal and floral remains indicate a variety of time horizons. Numerous radiocarbon dates indicate that the burned features were essentially devoid of radioactive carbon and were thus over 40,000 years old (Crook and Harris, 1962). The Clovis projectile point at Lewisville was presumed to have been a plant. Some prehistorians have suggested that the hearths really represent burned pack rat nests (Heizer and Brooks, 1965) or even burned tree stumps. The remaining "artifacts" were considered to have been washed into the soil matrix from higher terraces. The site, inundated by reservoir waters during excavation, has been controversial for twenty years. In 1978 a drought in central Texas brought the level of Lewisville Lake down below the level of the hearth area. At that time, Larry Banks and Robert Burton of the United States Army Corps of Engineers made additional discoveries that led me to reexcavate the site in 1979 and 1980. Research was terminated when heavy rainfall brought a rise in the water level. However, the brief excavation did yield some interesting data which will allow for tentative interpretations. Two independent laboratory analyses, one from the University of Illinois at Urbana and one from Harvard University, indicate that the burned areas contained lignitic coal. Thus, the early ^^C dates can be rejected. Lignite is found in the Woodbine formation one-quarter mile to the west and may have been brought to the site by man. Additional faunal and floral remains were found in and around the hearth areas. Several small flakes made of local quartzite, Edwards Plateau chert, and Alibates dolomite from the Texas Panhandle were also found associated with the burned areas. The cross-sections of the burned areas indicate they are indeed hearths. I think that the stone artifacts found by Crook and Harris are associated with these hearths, and the Lewisville site is probably a Clovis campsite. Intensely worked localities in southern California include Texas Street (Carter, 1957), and Cal ico Hills (Leakey et al., 1968; Simpson, 1978). Major problems with the sites center around the age of the deposits and the doubtful status of the recovered specimens as artifacts (Haynes, 1973). Suffice to say that a few of these stone objects do resemble artifacts (Leakey et al., 1968; Bryan, 1978). Given the nature of the chert-bearing deposits, however, they must be viewed with a certain amount of skepticism. Publication of definitive geological work, sound dates, and evidence for hearths would allow definitive statements. The Channel Islands off California have also been described as having early fire hearths associated with the burned bones of Pleistocene fauna dating between 11,000-37,000 years ago (Orr, 1968). However, the finds may be situated in a redeposited context. The weathered bedrock sediments have been oxidized to the same color as burned earth, making it difficult to distinguish hearth features. Further, the alluvial sequences on Santa Rosa Island contain abundant charcoal from natural fires (Johnson, 1980a: 110-111; 1980b: 117-118). As the mammoth bones, stone tools, and putative hearths were also found on erosional unconformities, additional work is needed to clarify the nature of the human occupation of the Channel Islands. At the Manis site, on the Olympic Peninsula, a bone object tentatively identified as a projectile point was found inbedded in a mastodon rib (Gustafson et al., 1979). Although bone growth around the intrusive object indicated that the wound was inflicted a number of months before the animal died, the remains appeared to have been butchered. Along with the butchered remains, a cobble spall tool was recovered. Two radiocarbon dates suggest that the site is around 12,000 years old. These dates were derived from seeds, wood, and other vegetal remains that were found in the bone-bearing alluvium. If the association of the cobble tool, the presumed projectile point and the organics (presumably accurately dated) can be demonstrated, then there is a clear-cut case for hunting mastodon in the Pleistocene of the Northwest Coast. It is not
Page 1 and 2:
JM*^>T^ Plains Indian Studies A COL
Page 3 and 4:
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHRO
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Contents Page EDITORS' INTRODUCTION
Page 7 and 8:
Plains Indian Studies Editors' Intr
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NUMBER 30 12:00 p.m. LUNCH 1:30 p.m
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NUMBER 30 comprised some of the ear
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John C. Ewers and William N. Fenton
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^9 ^^^^H/"^V^^^^H P^^B Lf// to n|[/
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John Canfield Ewers and the Great T
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NUMBER 30 13 heavy doses of materia
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NUMBER 30 15 sages from books and a
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NUMBER 30 sault by the medicine pip
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NUMBER 30 19 cused on archeology. T
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NUMBER 30 21 he has viewed statisti
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NUMBER 30 23 Basin Surveys, establi
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Bibliography of John C. Ewers 1932
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NUMBER 30 27 36. The Indian Trade o
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NUMBER 30 29 1966 82. Chiefs from t
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NUMBER 30 31 125. Chippewa, Cree an
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Bibhography of Waldo R. Wedel 1933
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NUMBER 30 35 43. The Missouri River
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NUMBER 30 37 1959 79. An Introducti
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NUMBER 30 39 116. House Floors and
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NUMBER 30 41 phase of the game of m
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NUMBER 30 43 FIGURE 3.—Waldo and
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NUMBER 30 45 came Jack's extensive
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An Historical Character Mythologize
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NUMBER 30 49 ruined"), since the ac
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NUMBER 30 51 a war party that happe
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NUMBER 30 The Legendary Figure An i
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NUMBER 30 their identity to anyone,
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NUMBER 30 57 as the actors approach
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Political Assimilation on the Black
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NUMBER 30 61 and daring on horse-st
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NUMBER 30 63 the incident led to hi
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NUMBER 30 65 after years of litigat
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NUMBER 30 67 vation and before the
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NUMBER 30 69 to the financially dis
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NUMBER 30 Federal Records Center, D
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"Look at My Hair, It is Gray": Age
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NUMBER 30 75 suited potential selec
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NUMBER 30 77 THE GROS VENTRE BUSINE
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NUMBER 30 79 worked to generate sup
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NUMBER 30 81 Mountain Crows, and th
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NUMBER 30 83 validated and reinforc
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NUMBER 30 85 general. The Sun Dance
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NUMBER 30 87 spect for ritual leade
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NUMBER 30 89 and I don't know what
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NUMBER 30 91 ington, D.C: Catholic
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NUMBER 30 93 volume 12, book 1. Hou
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NUMBER 30 95 ing and travel. Yet ea
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NUMBER 30 97 place." The leadership
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NUMBER 30 99 (Imuks-ay'k-ni), from
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NUMBER 30 101 ical condition were t
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NUMBER 30 103 chiefs of the tribe.
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Laced Coats and Leather Jackets: Th
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NUMBER 30 107 fashion. Far more col
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NUMBER 30 109 On the other side of
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NUMBER 30 111 FIGURE 10.—White ma
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NUMBER 30 113 sashes and beadwork.
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NUMBER 30 115 FIGURE 13.—Oglala S
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NUMBER 30 117 Cabinet of Curiositie
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NUMBER 30 119 the period has often
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NUMBER 30 121 as physically large;
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NUMBER 30 123 New Spain and in many
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NUMBER 30 125 ita) trader (M. Wedel
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NUMBER 30 127 riors and have served
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NUMBER 30 129 hunters and traders d
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NUMBER 30 131 I have seen no record
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NUMBER 30 133 effective enticements
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Shelling Corn in the Prairie-Plains
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NUMBER 30 137 FIGURE 15.—Oneota s
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NUMBER 30 It is possible that still
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NUMBER 30 141 canvas on which they
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NUMBER 30 143 of September when the
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NUMBER 30 gested the use of these i
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NUMBER 30 147 Shell and side A, rig
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NUMBER 30 ences, demonstrated below
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NUMBER 30 151 FIGURE 22.—Vertical
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NUMBER 30 153 fig. 12r). Objects of
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NUMBER 30 155 editor. Aspects of Up
Page 163 and 164: Bias in the Zooarcheological Record
Page 165 and 166: NUMBER 30 159 population in cultura
Page 167 and 168: NUMBER 30 between sites. Since so m
Page 169 and 170: NUMBER 30 163 pling scheme used. Th
Page 171 and 172: NUMBER 30 165 MNI MNI FIGURE 25.—
Page 173 and 174: NUMBER 30 167 taken to contribute t
Page 175 and 176: NUMBER 30 169 Among the historic Co
Page 177 and 178: NUMBER 30 171 etery. Keos, 1:129-13
Page 179 and 180: Some Observations on the Central Pl
Page 181 and 182: NUMBER 30 175 similarity in the cho
Page 183 and 184: NUMBER 30 177 N SELECTED ARCHAEOLOG
Page 185 and 186: NUMBER 30 179 FIGURE 30.—Forest c
Page 187 and 188: NUMBER 30 181 a long line along the
Page 189 and 190: NUMBER 30 183 sloping ridge spurs.
Page 191 and 192: NUMBER 30 hunting and fishing camps
Page 193 and 194: NUMBER 30 187 should reduce the num
Page 195 and 196: NUMBER 30 189 has drawn upon models
Page 197 and 198: NUMBER 30 191 Dean, Seth 1883. Anti
Page 199 and 200: Paleo-Indian Winter Subsistence Str
Page 201 and 202: NUMBER 30 195 and late Archaic peri
Page 203 and 204: NUMBER 30 197 nent is located in th
Page 205 and 206: NUMBER 30 199 1977-78 caused the ar
Page 207 and 208: NUMBER 30 201 meat caches, would un
Page 209 and 210: NUMBER 30 203 published advocating
Page 211 and 212: NUMBER 30 205 Radiometric determina
Page 213: NUMBER 30 207 of butchering. Among
Page 217 and 218: NUMBER 30 211 found. At Locality II
Page 219 and 220: NUMBER 30 213 and unifacial flake t
Page 221 and 222: NUMBER 30 extended across Beringia
Page 223 and 224: NUMBER 30 217 Irving, William N. 19
Page 227: REQUIREMENTS FOR SMITHSONIAN SERIES
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