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REICHARD, R 1993. From RNA to DNA, why so many ribonucleotide reductases? Science 260: 1773-1777. RODRIGUEZ, E. and LEVIN, D.A. 1976. Biochemical parallelisms of repellents and attractants in higher plants and arthropods, p. 214-270. In Wallace, J.W. and Mansell, R.L., eds. Biochemical Interaction Between Plants and Insects. Rec. Adv. Phytochem. I0: 214-270. ROZENTAL, J.M. and NORRIS, D.M. 1973. Chemosensory mechanism in American cockroach olfaction and gustation. Nature 244: 370-371. ROZENTAL, J.M. and NORRIS, D.M. 1975. Genetically variable olfactory receptor sensitivity in Periplaneta americana. Life Sciences 17:105-110. RYAN, C.A. 1983. Insect-induced chemical signals regulating natural plant protection responses, p. 43-60. In Denno, R.F. and McClure, M.S., eds. Variable Plants and Herbivores in Natural and Managed Systems. Academic Press, New York. SELA, M., WHITE, F.H., and ANFINSEN, C.B. 1957. Reductive cleavage of disulfide bridges in ribonuclease. Science 125: 691-692. SEQUEIRA, L. 1983. Mechanisms of induced resistance in plants. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 37: 51-79. SHARMA, H.C., and NORRIS, D.M. 1991. Chemical basis of resistance in soya bean to cabbage looper, Trichoplusia hi. J. Sci. Food Agric. 55: 353-364. SLINGER,G., ROZENTAL, J.M., and NORRIS, l).M. 1975. Sulfhydryl groups and the quinone receptor in insect olfaction and gustation. Nature 256: 222-223. STAMLER, J.S., SINGEL, D.J., and LOSCALZO, J. 1992. Biochemistry of nitric oxide and its redox-active forms. Science 258: 1898-1902. STORZ, G., TARTAGLIA, L.A., and AMES, B.N. 1990. Transcriptional regulator of oxidative stress-inducible genes: direct activation by oxidation. Science 248: 189-194. STOSSEL, A. 1984. Regulation by sulfhydryl groups of glyceollin accumulation in soybean hypocotyls. Planta 160: 314- 319. SZENT-GYORGYI, A. 1973. The development of bioenergetics, p. 1-4. In Avery, J., ed. Membrane Structure and Mechanisms of Biological Energy Transduction. Plenum Press, New York. TEMPLETON, M.D. and LAMB, C.J. 1988. Elicitors and defense gene activation. Plant Cell Environ. 11: 395-401. VANl)E BERG, J.S. 1981. Ultrastructural and cytochemical parameters of chemical perception, p. 103-131. In Norris, l).M., ed. Perception of Behavioral Chemicals. Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam. VAN DER VLIET, A. and BAST, A. 1992. Effect of oxidative stress on receptors and signal transmission. Chem. Biol. Interact. 85:95-116. VILLET, R.H. 1974. Involvement of amino and sulfhydryl groups in olfactory transduction in silk moths. Nature 248: 707- 708. VOGT, R.G. and RIDDIFORD, L.M. 1986. Pheromone reception: a kinetic equilibrium, p. 201-208. In Payne, T.L., Birch, M.C., and Kennedy, C.E.J., eds. Mechanisms in Insect Olfaction. Clarendon Press, Oxford, U.K. WALl), G. 1969. Life in the second and third periods; or why phosphorus and sulfur for high-energy bonds?, p. 156-t67. In Kalckar, H.M., ed. Biological Phosphorylations: Development of Concepts. Prentice-Hall, New York. 57
FUNGAL ENDOPHYTES: CONTRASTING EFFECTS IN TREES AND GRASSES STANLEY H. FAETH Department of Zoology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1501, USA INTRODUCTION Fungal endophytes, fungi that live asymptomatically and intercellularly within tissues of most plants, have recently received increasing attention from ecologists (e.g., Strong 1988). The presence of fungal endophytes in plants, especially grasses, can increase resistance to herbivores due to the production of alkaloidal mycotoxins, but also may increase resistance to drought and flooding stress, increase plant competitive abilities, and, for endophytes transmitted vertically via seeds, deter seed predators or increase seed dispersal (Clay 1990, Knoch et al. 1993). Endophytic fungi are typically considered plant mutualists because of these potential modes of increased plant fitness (Clay 1990). However, most research on fungal endophytes has involved introduced, agricultural forage grasses, such as tall rescue or perennial ryegrass. Little is known of the ecological role of endophytes in either native grasses or woody plants relative to plant-herbivore, plant-plant, or plantseed predator interactions. Here, I summarize our research to date on endophytes in Quercus emoryi (Emory oak) and their effects on a major herbivore, the leafminer Cameraria sp. nov. (Lepidoptera:Gracillaridae). Leafminer larvae spend 11 months within leaf tissues and are confined to a single leaf chosen by the ovipositing female. Therefore, endophytes should alter leafininer performance more than that of mobile, exophytic insects. I contrast these results with endophytes in Festuca arizonica (Arizona fescue). I predict stronger effects of endophytes on herbivores and seed predators of Arizona fescue due to differences in mode of fungal transmission and specificity, i_: METHODS :: We have monitored seasonal and spatial patterns of fungal endophyte infections and the leafminer in trees of Emory :i oak at Oak Flat study area in central Arizona for the past 4 and 10 years (Faeth 1991), respectively. We have isolated at least 12 species of endophytes from Emory oak, but four species, QE1 (Asteromella sp.), QE2 (Ascomycete:Diaporthales), QE7 (Plecophomella sp.), and Y1 (filamentous yeast) make up >95% of all infections. All of these endophytes are transmitted horizontally via spores, likely carried in rainsplash. In observational studies, we have correlated the presence of living and dead larval leafminers with the frequency of infection. In manipulative experiments, we have either increased (spore spraying of leaves or spore injection of individual mines) or decreased (enclosing branches with plastic or application of fungicides) to test the role of individual fungal endophytes on leafminer developmental and mortality. We have begun to investigate the role of fungal endophytes in Arizona rescue populations and their relationship to intensity of grazing andsoil nutrients. Arizona rescue harbors two endophytes, Acremonium starrii and a p-endophyte (Phialophora-like). Both endophytes are transmitted vertically from maternal to offspring plant via seed, but the p-endophyte also sporulates and can be transmitted horizontally fromadult plant to adult plant. We have conducted preliminary experiments testing the role of the Acremonium endophyte in reducing seed predation and increasing seed dispersal by seed harvesting ants (Pogonomymrex species) by presenting E+ (infected) and E- (uninfected) rescue seeds to ant colonies and following proportions collected and discarded into refuse piles. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Generally, endophyte infections in oaks increase seasonally, with the peak infection level coinciding with summer rains in Arizona in July-August. Overall infection levels vary with all spatial scales- between localities, between and within Mattson, W.J., Niemel_i, p., and Rousi, M., eds. 1996. Dynamics of forest herbivory: quest for pattern and principle. LISDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-183, N.C. For. Exp. Sta., St. Paul, MN 58
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DYNAMICS OF FOREST HERBIVORY: QUEST
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Seeking The Rules
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32. Companion planting of the nitro
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GRIMALSKY, ¥.I., Research Institut
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POUTTU, ANTTI, Finnish Forest Resea
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persist in mature leaves and affect
Page 15 and 16:
THE SINK-SOURCE HYPOTHESIS: TYPE AN
Page 17 and 18: late season defoliation decreases t
Page 19 and 20: BLANCHE, C.A., LORIO, EL., Jr., SOM
Page 21 and 22: NIEMELA, R, TUOMI, J,, and LOJANDER
Page 24: induced reactions have been studied
Page 28 and 29: summer, but the other sawfly specie
Page 30 and 31: LARSSON, S., BJ(_RKMAN, C., and GRE
Page 32 and 33: STAND AND LANDSCAPE DIVERSITY AS A
Page 34 and 35: not related to resistance to the se
Page 36 and 37: In contrast to the situation in eas
Page 38 and 39: ROOT, R.B. 1973. Organization of a
Page 40 and 41: We tlhus neglect two potential sour
Page 42 and 43: c__ c__ 1T1 Ill a) a) 0 0 0 e 1 o e
Page 44 and 45: c_ >l.s S S S m N < DN DN < D c DN
Page 46 and 47: :hen k > 0 suggest that the cue or
Page 48 and 49: oth as protective weapons and as po
Page 50 and 51: DEFENSE THEORIES AND BIRCH RESISTAN
Page 52 and 53: P 45 A L 40 A T 35 A B 30 I L 25 I
Page 54 and 55: However, hares showed strong prefer
Page 56 and 57: DUGLE, J.A. 1966. A taxonomic study
Page 58 and 59: accommodate findings related to mic
Page 60 and 61: Table l.--Mean ±S.E. area eaten by
Page 62 and 63: Sulfhydryl-Disulfide Mechanisms In
Page 64 and 65: Iraa prior experimental analysis of
Page 66 and 67: FRAZIER, J.L. and HEITZ, J.R. 1975.
Page 70 and 71: ; trees, and between and within ind
Page 72 and 73: Encapsulated objects are data struc
Page 74 and 75: _re3.--The Lignum model can be cont
Page 76 and 77: SEVERE DEFOLIATION Tree Fine Root +
Page 78 and 79: RUMBAUGH, J., BLAHA, M., PREMERLANI
Page 80 and 81: oo0 a b ol ¢' _achiman_i ()® 1,eA
Page 82 and 83: 1000 Conspicuous Defo i at ion 100
Page 84 and 85: 2.oo 2.oo o t 4 t ¢._ e'- 1.80 1.8
Page 86 and 87: Qualitative Changes in [,eaves and
Page 88 and 89: t00 2 Yr 1 Yr o_ 80 Treatment Treat
Page 90 and 91: Table 2.--Body size of Q. purzctate
Page 92 and 93: 06 b AddedBSA < 04 _ 2rag -'=' i:3
Page 94 and 95: Severe Defol iat ion Site-A 1993 _
Page 96 and 97: KAMATA, N. and IGARASHI, M. 1995b.
Page 98 and 99: enclosure %r 20 post-diapausing sec
Page 100 and 101: 2,500 F 000 F NF NF b _7 a _;_ a _7
Page 102 and 103: 8O D 09 i 4,'.) F AS4L a Z___7 2o !
Page 104 and 105: 2,500 _ st2-st4 El st5 0 st6 [_ pup
Page 106 and 107: 96 SLANSKY, E, Jr. 1990. Insect nut
Page 108 and 109: later, we selected one more floweri
Page 110 and 111: Table 2.---Mean spruce budworm perf
Page 112 and 113: Table 3..--Mean spruce budworm perf
Page 114 and 115: FOLIVORE FEEDING ON MALE CONIFER FL
Page 116 and 117: Table 3.--Lymantria monacha prefere
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500- 400- i 300 v ¢ m a 200- I00 L
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From the point of view of trees, th
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THE BLACKMARGINED APHID AS A KEYSTO
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Wood et al. (1987) report that M. c
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MIZELL, R.E 1991. Pesticides and be
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METHODS Study Site The study took p
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the samples. Fertilization had subs
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Table 2.--Percent nutrient content
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Some tree responses to fertilizatio
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PHYTOCHEMICAL PROTECTION AND NATURA
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Indirect effects of abiotic factors
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HUNTER, M.D. and PRICE, P.W. 1992.
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A° ADDITIVE C. HYBRID SUSCEPTIBILI
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Galls, leaf miners, or leaf folds w
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Table 2.--Summary of the hypotheses
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the inheritance patterns of seconda
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FLOATE, K.D. and WHITHAM, T.G. 1993
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Elements of the Suitability/Defense
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Table l.--Comparing the mean number
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors sincer
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SINGH, D.R 1986_ Breeding for resis
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The objectives of this presentation
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Table 1.--Average weevil attack on
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1977, Kline and Mitchell 1979, Wood
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Further research is underway to cla
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A SUGI CLONE HIGHLY PALATABLE TO HA
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RESULTS Seasonal Stability of Palat
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-
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OGAWA, A., NAGATA, Y., and SUKENO,
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MATERIALS AND METHODS Field Work In
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Laboratory Procedures The week afte
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E 120 Nogent-sur-Vernisson Remnings
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Interdependence Between Reaction Zo
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alance hypothesis (Lorio 1986) cann
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SOLHEIM, H., LANGSTROM, B., and HEL
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In a second experiment, three 30-ye
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Considering biochemical pathways, i
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- = 120 N /'_" =40 1/ _ j Days 0 _
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BIGGS, A.R. 1985. Suberized boundar
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DIFFERENTIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY OF WHIT
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Table 2.--Mortality of white fir pr
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Results from the geographic range p
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esulting seedlings were then rooted
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-0.2 0 5 82. _j -0,4 e a a a D4 E I
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1960, Kalkstein 1976). Increased su
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RYAN, B.F., JOtNER, B.L., and RYAN,
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It is seldom feasible to control wa
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15 15 u. 10 |O O N tal 5 5 g ao o 4
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Only recently have we conducted stu
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esistance to beetle attack. Another
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LORIO, EL., Jr'. and HODGES, J.D. 1
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EFFECTS OF ROOT INHABITING INSECT-F
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OCCURRENCE OF ROOT AND STEM SUBCORT
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]Predisposition of Root-infected Tr
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chemistry associated with root colo
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Implications to Natural Resource Ma
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KLEPZIG, K.D., RAFFA, K.F., and SMA
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RAFFA, K.F., PHILLIPS, T., and SALO
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METHODS The study was installed in
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FURNISS, M.M., LIVINGSTON, R.L., an
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METHODS In the spring and summer of
Page 240 and 241:
The importance of a compound as a r
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WERNER, R.A. 1995. Toxicity and rep
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41 40 42 \ 4t 42 41 42 ",,,\ 42 40
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Table 1.--Summary data for the 26 p
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One weakness of using data from gen
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Lower Peninsula (populations 14-26)
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AUCLAIR, A.ND., WORREST, R.C., LACH
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KELLOMAKI, S., HANNINEN, H., and KO
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WARGO, RM. and HAACK, R.A. 1991. Un
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investigation. Sampling was done on
Page 260 and 261:
Figure 2.--Changes in protein preci
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q) J 400 T J ! i i i i o control tr
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attacked trees than in control tree
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ACIDIC DEPOSITION, DROUGHT, AND INS
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Table 1.--Impact of acidic fog upon
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MENGEL, K., BREININGER, T., and LUT
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THE RESISTANCE OF SCOTCH PINE TO DE
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EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Experiments we
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C w Q. 1,200 1,000 o 800 C_ --- 600
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0 .................................
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FONTAtNE, R.G. 1985. Forty years of
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Host Defenses An important componen
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Functional Heterogeneity of Forest
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The Connectivity Index (CI). The CI
Page 288 and 289:
FUNCTIONAL HETEROGENEITYANALYSIS :
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The Modified Hazard Map. The next l
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systems facilitate mapping of fores
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KOLASA, J. and ROLLO, C.D. 1991. In
Page 296:
) i,i_i)i_)i_i_ U.S. Departme_]t of
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