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136 Prospects for Geothermal Power Geothermal plant capital cost in 1999 USD/kW ● Cost Reduction Opportunities 6500 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 0 Because costs are closely related to the characteristics of the local resource system and reservoir, costs and cost reductions cannot be easily assessed on a general level. Binary-cycle power plants or Hot Dry Rock systems are more expensive in terms of kWh generated (see Figure 51) than conventional geothermal systems, but these new techniques use resources that would have been uneconomical in the past. Binary-cycle power plants are suitable for smallscale applications and lower-temperature resources. Major contributions can be expected from R&D for new approaches or for improving conventional approaches and smaller modular units will allow economies of scale on the manufacturing level. Within the power plant, considerable economies of scale occur on the level of component and plant size. Figure 51 Capital Costs for US Geothermal Plants, 1999 Binary Empire (1987) Double Flash Desert Peak (1985) Source: Data from Di Pippo. Binary Stillwater (1989) Single Flash Blundell (1984) Double Flash Brady Hot Springs (1992) Binary Stillwater (1989) Double Flash Brady Hot Springs (1992) Double Flash Beowawe (1985) Double Flash Heber (1985) Double Flash Dixie Valley (1988) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Geothermal plant size in MW GEOTHERMAL POWER X6
The following are areas where R&D can improve the techno-economic performance of geothermal power: ● Plant refurbishment can increase the plant’s efficiency and availability, taking account of the thermodynamic characteristics of the geothermal fluid for any given site. ● Generating electricity from low-to-medium temperature geothermal fluids and from the waste hot water coming from the separators in waterdominated geothermal fields has made considerable progress. By selecting suitable secondary fluids, binary systems have recently been designed to utilise geothermal fluids temperatures of 85/90°C to 175°C. For example, one company is exploring the use of the Kalina cycle, a binary cycle that uses a mixture of ammonia and water as the working fluid. This cycle has the potential to extract one-third more energy from the geothermal fluid than a conventional cycle. ● More automation to decrease labour costs for O&M. ● Reservoir management aimed at increasing the production rate and lifetime will thus improve the sustainability of the resource (e.g. injection, re-injection, well stimulation). An example is the reservoir depletion problem at The Geysers (USA) where reclaimed wastewater is transported from several communities and injected into the reservoir. This approach not only prolongs the life of the geothermal resource by slowing the loss of the reservoir volume over time, but also provides a solution to wastewater disposal problems. ● Expansion of the explored zone, which in general is less risky than exploring a brand-new area. ● Development of more accurate and lower-cost methods for finding and mapping geothermal resources. Recent accomplishments include instrumentation that can operate in hotter environments, and more accurate field survey procedures. Before drawing up a geothermal exploration programme, all existing geological, geophysical and geochemical data should be collected and integrated with any data available from previous studies on water, mineral and oil resources in the study area and adjacent areas. This information frequently plays an important role in defining the objectives of the geothermal exploration programme and leads to a significant reduction in costs and less financial risk for project development. In general, only a small portion of an area’s geothermal potential has been explored and exploited. 6 GEOTHERMAL POWER 137
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY RENEWAB
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY 9, rue
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication d
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8 Prospects for Wind Power 158 Issu
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10 4. Turbine Efficiency Over Time
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Renewables are th
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Technology and Technological Develo
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Table 1 Focal Points for Policy Int
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Table 2 Ranges of Investment and Ge
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Table 3 Current and Forecast Instal
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generation. Better power quality re
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per kWh from plants with proven con
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28 Renewables for Power Generation
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30 ● basic features: characterist
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32 The natural factors which affect
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34 Figure 5 Francis Turbine Source:
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36 ● Costs Investment costs for S
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Installation costs [€/kW] 10000 8
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Electricity generation cost in USD
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● Market Installed capacity [MW]
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44 Nevertheless, hydropower project
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Worldwide hydro production [TWh/yr]
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48 Table 5 Key Factors for SHP Pote
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50 Materials Low-cost materials lik
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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER A Brief Hi
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to the alternating current (AC) req
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from USD 10 to 18 per W. Off-grid s
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companies like Sharp, Kyocera and S
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sells customised module manufacturi
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germane, and toxic metals like cadm
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Efficiency [%] 20 15 10 5 0 R&D is
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Generation costs in €/kWh 1.1 1 0
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This is seen most often in Japan, a
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System DC/AC unit costs (individual
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issue as production levels increase
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chemistry. Such developments - ulti
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78 delivered to the receiver. The r
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80 ● Thermal Storage Like hybridi
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Electricity generation cost USD cen
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84 An example of a CSP industry is
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Page 90 and 91: 88 reduces the capital cost by 12-1
Page 92 and 93: 90 innovations have influenced all
Page 94 and 95: 92 receiver technology is entering
Page 96 and 97: 94 energy storage) and higher solar
Page 98 and 99: 96 but solar-field maintenance cost
Page 100 and 101: 98 Further cost reductions will be
Page 102 and 103: 100 Global Renewable Energy Resourc
Page 105 and 106: BIOPOWER A Brief History of Biopowe
Page 107 and 108: transport, emissions, etc.) of fast
Page 109 and 110: 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Figure 38 T
Page 111 and 112: ● Swedish forestry harvesting sys
Page 113 and 114: Gross electricty generation in GWh
Page 115 and 116: Specific investement costs in € p
Page 117 and 118: Table 30 Generation Costs for 2-MW
Page 119 and 120: €/MWh 16 12 8 4 0 for reductions
Page 121 and 122: coal at the inlet to the mill, b) f
Page 123 and 124: Table 33 Cost Reduction Opportuniti
Page 125 and 126: GEOTHERMAL POWER A Brief History of
Page 127 and 128: eached relatively shallow depths (5
Page 129 and 130: Capital cost in 1993 USD per kW 300
Page 131 and 132: An example of a large scale power p
Page 133 and 134: ● Industry The international geot
Page 135 and 136: Cumulative global geothermal power
Page 137: Wastewater: Discharge of wastewater
Page 141 and 142: ● Market Opportunities Market Pot
Page 143 and 144: the simplest form of local distribu
Page 145 and 146: Based on country update papers for
Page 147: Power Generation Technology Combine
Page 150 and 151: 148 Commercial and technological de
Page 152 and 153: 150 Table 45 Average Investment Cos
Page 154 and 155: 152 Generation Costs Generating cap
Page 156 and 157: 154 Table 47 Top Ten Suppliers, 200
Page 158 and 159: 156 Table 49 Installed Capacity (in
Page 160 and 161: 158 On the positive side, no direct
Page 162 and 163: DKK (1999)/kWh/Year Productivity 3
Page 164 and 165: Productivity in kWh per m 2 per yea
Page 166 and 167: 164 before the intermittent nature
Page 168 and 169: 166 The 2 to 3 MW power class will
Page 170 and 171: 168 Grid Integration and Intermitte
Page 172 and 173: 170 Internationally accepted requir
Page 174 and 175: 172 EPRI: Electrical Power Research
Page 177 and 178: SOURCES AND FURTHER READING Chapter
Page 179 and 180: European Commission (1997), Energy
Page 181 and 182: Sellers, R. (1996), PV Diffusion Re
Page 183 and 184: Morse, F. H. (2000), The Commercial
Page 185 and 186: Veringa, H. (2001), Biomass Paper,
Page 187 and 188: CADDET (2001), Renewable Energy New
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WEBSITES Australian Greenhouse offi
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RETScreen International: http://www
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