Technology Status - NET Nowak Energie & Technologie AG

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148 Commercial and technological development has been closely related to turbine size (see Figure 53). From ten metres in diameter (typically with 22 kW to 35 kW of installed power) in the mid-1970s, wind turbines have grown to diameters of 80 metres and more (with multi-MW installed power). Technology development has resulted, furthermore, in variable pitch (as opposed to fixed blades), direct drives (as opposed to classical drive trains), variable-speed conversion systems, power electronics, better materials and better ratio of weight of materials to capacity installed. One major trend is toward increasing rotor diameter in order to develop turbines and wind farms for offshore applications. The other major trend is toward larger markets for small-sized systems, e.g. in developing countries. The use of small grid-connected machines (10 kW) in the built environment and farms in the US is relatively new. Figure 53 Average Turbine Size at Market Introduction 1985: 20 kW ● Costs 1990: 170 kW 1995: 473 kW 1999: 919 kW 2002: 1395 kW Sources: NET Ltd., Switzerland. Raw data is from Durstewitz (1999) and Systèmes Solaires/EurObserv’ER (2003). Investment Costs Costs of wind turbines and plants depend on the system (components and size) and the site. Typical turnkey installation costs * are around USD 400 per m2 of swept area or USD 850 to 950 per kW for on-land wind turbines and farms, of *. There is some difference of opinion about the correct way to benchmark energy technologies. For wind turbines, for instance: price per square meter of rotor area or price per kWh produced are both used. WIND POWER X7
Table 44 Commercial and Technological Development of Wind Turbine Technology in the Last Three Decades Phase Manufacturing Research Codes and Standards Before 1985 Pioneering and conceptualisation Focus mainly on Absence of Rotor diameter phase with small enterprises and theoretical international < 15 m companies from different problems and standards, quality backgrounds (shipbuilding, technology, e.g. control, detailed gearboxes, agriculture machinery, horizontal and load analyses, grid aerospace, etc.) developing and vertical axes, size quality producing turbines based on between 5 kW and requirements simple design rules. Large firms 3 MW, different contracted for developing MW numbers of blades turbines failed because of non- (1 to 4) viability of this size machine at this early date. 1985 to 1989 Technology maturing (California First design codes Basis for all current Rotor diameter boom, then collapse) and national design codes laid in 15-30 m Production of small series Many start-up enterprises and restructuring partly concurrent with California boom and collapse standards this period 1989 to 1994 Mass production of the successful Programmes for Codes and Rotor diameter 500/600-kW turbine class developing the standards 30-50 m Industry reconstructed 500 kW to 1 MW established. Several turbine class international benchmarks Since 1994 Acceleration towards multi-MW Focus on weak Design codes Diameter rotor classes of turbines - entirely spots in design essentially greater than market driven knowledge, R&D unchanged 50 m Steady growth in industry on new topics like Recent codes for short-term wind short-term wind forecasting power prediction Sources: EUREC Agency/Beurskens, Neij/EXTOOL (2003) and Johnson. which USD 600 to 800 per kW are for the turbine, including the tower but excluding the transformer. Project preparation costs, excluding costs for grid reinforcement and long-distance power transmission lines, can average 1.25 times the ex-factory costs, as experienced with 600-kW machines in Denmark. 7 WIND POWER 149
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY RENEWAB
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY 9, rue
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication d
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8 Prospects for Wind Power 158 Issu
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10 4. Turbine Efficiency Over Time
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Renewables are th
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Technology and Technological Develo
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Table 1 Focal Points for Policy Int
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Table 2 Ranges of Investment and Ge
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Table 3 Current and Forecast Instal
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generation. Better power quality re
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per kWh from plants with proven con
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28 Renewables for Power Generation
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30 ● basic features: characterist
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32 The natural factors which affect
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34 Figure 5 Francis Turbine Source:
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36 ● Costs Investment costs for S
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Installation costs [€/kW] 10000 8
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Electricity generation cost in USD
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● Market Installed capacity [MW]
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44 Nevertheless, hydropower project
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Worldwide hydro production [TWh/yr]
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48 Table 5 Key Factors for SHP Pote
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50 Materials Low-cost materials lik
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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER A Brief Hi
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to the alternating current (AC) req
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from USD 10 to 18 per W. Off-grid s
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companies like Sharp, Kyocera and S
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sells customised module manufacturi
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germane, and toxic metals like cadm
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Efficiency [%] 20 15 10 5 0 R&D is
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Generation costs in €/kWh 1.1 1 0
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This is seen most often in Japan, a
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System DC/AC unit costs (individual
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issue as production levels increase
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chemistry. Such developments - ulti
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78 delivered to the receiver. The r
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80 ● Thermal Storage Like hybridi
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Electricity generation cost USD cen
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84 An example of a CSP industry is
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86 If CSP plants are hybridised wit
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88 reduces the capital cost by 12-1
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90 innovations have influenced all
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92 receiver technology is entering
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94 energy storage) and higher solar
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96 but solar-field maintenance cost
Page 100 and 101: 98 Further cost reductions will be
Page 102 and 103: 100 Global Renewable Energy Resourc
Page 105 and 106: BIOPOWER A Brief History of Biopowe
Page 107 and 108: transport, emissions, etc.) of fast
Page 109 and 110: 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Figure 38 T
Page 111 and 112: ● Swedish forestry harvesting sys
Page 113 and 114: Gross electricty generation in GWh
Page 115 and 116: Specific investement costs in € p
Page 117 and 118: Table 30 Generation Costs for 2-MW
Page 119 and 120: €/MWh 16 12 8 4 0 for reductions
Page 121 and 122: coal at the inlet to the mill, b) f
Page 123 and 124: Table 33 Cost Reduction Opportuniti
Page 125 and 126: GEOTHERMAL POWER A Brief History of
Page 127 and 128: eached relatively shallow depths (5
Page 129 and 130: Capital cost in 1993 USD per kW 300
Page 131 and 132: An example of a large scale power p
Page 133 and 134: ● Industry The international geot
Page 135 and 136: Cumulative global geothermal power
Page 137 and 138: Wastewater: Discharge of wastewater
Page 139 and 140: The following are areas where R&D c
Page 141 and 142: ● Market Opportunities Market Pot
Page 143 and 144: the simplest form of local distribu
Page 145 and 146: Based on country update papers for
Page 147: Power Generation Technology Combine
Page 152 and 153: 150 Table 45 Average Investment Cos
Page 154 and 155: 152 Generation Costs Generating cap
Page 156 and 157: 154 Table 47 Top Ten Suppliers, 200
Page 158 and 159: 156 Table 49 Installed Capacity (in
Page 160 and 161: 158 On the positive side, no direct
Page 162 and 163: DKK (1999)/kWh/Year Productivity 3
Page 164 and 165: Productivity in kWh per m 2 per yea
Page 166 and 167: 164 before the intermittent nature
Page 168 and 169: 166 The 2 to 3 MW power class will
Page 170 and 171: 168 Grid Integration and Intermitte
Page 172 and 173: 170 Internationally accepted requir
Page 174 and 175: 172 EPRI: Electrical Power Research
Page 177 and 178: SOURCES AND FURTHER READING Chapter
Page 179 and 180: European Commission (1997), Energy
Page 181 and 182: Sellers, R. (1996), PV Diffusion Re
Page 183 and 184: Morse, F. H. (2000), The Commercial
Page 185 and 186: Veringa, H. (2001), Biomass Paper,
Page 187 and 188: CADDET (2001), Renewable Energy New
Page 189 and 190: WEBSITES Australian Greenhouse offi
Page 191: RETScreen International: http://www
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