Technology Status - NET Nowak Energie & Technologie AG

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156 Table 49 Installed Capacity (in MW) of Wind Energy, 2002 Europe 22,558 Germany 12,001 Spain 4,144 Denmark 2,889 Italy 785 The Netherlands 677 UK 562 Sweden 310 Greece 276 Rest of Europe 914 North America 4,929 USA 4,708 Canada 221 Asia 2,466 India 1,702 China 399 Japan 351 Rest of Asia 14 Rest of World 426 Total 30,379 Source: Systèmes Solaires/EurObserv’ER. Until the mid 1980s, wind turbine size was typically less than 100 kW, then in the range of a few hundred kilowatts up until the mid 1990s, when turbine sizes began to range from 0.5-1.5 MW (see Figure 58). Such large scale turbines are often used by on-land wind farm operators and owners of individual, mostly grid-connected wind turbines. In countries with less developed transport and power transmission and distribution infrastructure, this size class remains, or is becoming, dominant. In Germany, average wind turbine size reached 1.4 MW in 2002 and this large-scale turbine size class is becoming very competitive. Virtually all of the capacity is grid-connected. A relatively recent phenomenon in the segment of the smallest turbines is the so-called urban turbine. WIND POWER X7
Percentage of annual sales in numbers 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Figure 58 Market Share of Seven Generations of Wind Turbine <strong>Technology</strong> 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 Year 22 to 30 kW 55 to 75 kW 90 to 100 kW 150 to 250 kW 300 to 400 kW 450 to 750 kW > 1,000 kW Source: Danish Energy Agency. Wind turbines smaller than 500 kW are commonly used for off-grid applications. Especially, but not exclusively, in developing countries, applications for the smallest capacity turbines (typically < 50 kW) include not only power supply for off-grid users but also dedicated services such as mechanical water pumping (still the most common type of wind system application), desalinisation and battery charging. Offshore wind power generation is taking off in Europe. As the best on-land locations are becoming more difficult to develop, coastal countries are beginning to investigate and exploit near-shore and offshore resources. Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden and the UK have already amassed experience with near-shore wind farms. New offshore wind farms are expected to have turbines exceeding 1.5 MW. New capacities totalling several GW may be installed in Germany, the UK, Ireland, Denmark, Canada, Belgium and other countries in coming years. ● Environment For many years, wind energy was considered environmentally sound. But recently, major social objections (NIMBY – Not In My Back Yard) and landuse concerns related to operation and siting of turbines have been raised. Social acceptance is one of the limiting factors of wind’s potential growth. 7 WIND POWER 157
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY RENEWAB
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY 9, rue
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication d
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8 Prospects for Wind Power 158 Issu
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10 4. Turbine Efficiency Over Time
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Renewables are th
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Technology and Technological Develo
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Table 1 Focal Points for Policy Int
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Table 2 Ranges of Investment and Ge
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Table 3 Current and Forecast Instal
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generation. Better power quality re
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per kWh from plants with proven con
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28 Renewables for Power Generation
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30 ● basic features: characterist
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32 The natural factors which affect
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34 Figure 5 Francis Turbine Source:
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36 ● Costs Investment costs for S
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Installation costs [€/kW] 10000 8
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Electricity generation cost in USD
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● Market Installed capacity [MW]
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44 Nevertheless, hydropower project
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Worldwide hydro production [TWh/yr]
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48 Table 5 Key Factors for SHP Pote
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50 Materials Low-cost materials lik
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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER A Brief Hi
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to the alternating current (AC) req
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from USD 10 to 18 per W. Off-grid s
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companies like Sharp, Kyocera and S
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sells customised module manufacturi
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germane, and toxic metals like cadm
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Efficiency [%] 20 15 10 5 0 R&D is
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Generation costs in €/kWh 1.1 1 0
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This is seen most often in Japan, a
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System DC/AC unit costs (individual
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issue as production levels increase
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chemistry. Such developments - ulti
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78 delivered to the receiver. The r
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80 ● Thermal Storage Like hybridi
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Electricity generation cost USD cen
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84 An example of a CSP industry is
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86 If CSP plants are hybridised wit
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88 reduces the capital cost by 12-1
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90 innovations have influenced all
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92 receiver technology is entering
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94 energy storage) and higher solar
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96 but solar-field maintenance cost
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98 Further cost reductions will be
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100 Global Renewable Energy Resourc
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BIOPOWER A Brief History of Biopowe
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Page 109 and 110: 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Figure 38 T
Page 111 and 112: ● Swedish forestry harvesting sys
Page 113 and 114: Gross electricty generation in GWh
Page 115 and 116: Specific investement costs in € p
Page 117 and 118: Table 30 Generation Costs for 2-MW
Page 119 and 120: €/MWh 16 12 8 4 0 for reductions
Page 121 and 122: coal at the inlet to the mill, b) f
Page 123 and 124: Table 33 Cost Reduction Opportuniti
Page 125 and 126: GEOTHERMAL POWER A Brief History of
Page 127 and 128: eached relatively shallow depths (5
Page 129 and 130: Capital cost in 1993 USD per kW 300
Page 131 and 132: An example of a large scale power p
Page 133 and 134: ● Industry The international geot
Page 135 and 136: Cumulative global geothermal power
Page 137 and 138: Wastewater: Discharge of wastewater
Page 139 and 140: The following are areas where R&D c
Page 141 and 142: ● Market Opportunities Market Pot
Page 143 and 144: the simplest form of local distribu
Page 145 and 146: Based on country update papers for
Page 147: Power Generation Technology Combine
Page 150 and 151: 148 Commercial and technological de
Page 152 and 153: 150 Table 45 Average Investment Cos
Page 154 and 155: 152 Generation Costs Generating cap
Page 156 and 157: 154 Table 47 Top Ten Suppliers, 200
Page 160 and 161: 158 On the positive side, no direct
Page 162 and 163: DKK (1999)/kWh/Year Productivity 3
Page 164 and 165: Productivity in kWh per m 2 per yea
Page 166 and 167: 164 before the intermittent nature
Page 168 and 169: 166 The 2 to 3 MW power class will
Page 170 and 171: 168 Grid Integration and Intermitte
Page 172 and 173: 170 Internationally accepted requir
Page 174 and 175: 172 EPRI: Electrical Power Research
Page 177 and 178: SOURCES AND FURTHER READING Chapter
Page 179 and 180: European Commission (1997), Energy
Page 181 and 182: Sellers, R. (1996), PV Diffusion Re
Page 183 and 184: Morse, F. H. (2000), The Commercial
Page 185 and 186: Veringa, H. (2001), Biomass Paper,
Page 187 and 188: CADDET (2001), Renewable Energy New
Page 189 and 190: WEBSITES Australian Greenhouse offi
Page 191: RETScreen International: http://www
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