Technology Status - NET Nowak Energie & Technologie AG

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168 Grid Integration and Intermittency The intertwined problems of intermittency and impacts on grid reliability present two of the strongest challenges to wind energy’s future prospects. When wind is providing too much or too little power, the reliability of the grid is affected. Because wind is based on natural forces, it cannot dispatch power on demand. Because utilities must supply power in close balance to demand, intermittency can limit the amount of capacity of highly intermittent technologies that can be integrated into the grid. Thus, as the share of wind energy increases, integration of wind turbines into the electrical network will need both more attention and investment. To an extent, technical solutions and business and regularity practices can extend the penetration of wind, though these require not only significant research and development, but also new management techniques. There are two sets of issues: first, the short-term fluctuations and second, the medium and long-term issues of grid reliability when wind power exceeds a certain level of total power supply. On the short-term issues, fluctuations in power output caused by wind gusts may affect the power quality of the network. Short-term power fluctuations may be reduced using variable-speed turbines. Electricity flow controls and supplemental generation from distpatchable systems or storage can be used to further improve power quality. This supplemental generation could include another renewable technology such as hydropower. Better power quality from wind requires technical improvements to deal with harmonic distortion, reactive and inrush currents and instability, as well as grid adaptation. As to the medium and long-term issues of grid reliability when wind power provides a great deal of the total power supply, further study is required to understand better how to manage intermittent supply and what level can be absorbed. Wind power is one of the intermittent renewable technologies where penetration rates on the grid have caused technical problems (bioenergy CHP is the other). In Denmark, some local regions in Spain, and in Northern Germany, penetration rates of over 15 % (and even up to 50% for a few minutes) have been seen. In some instances, this has caused grid control and power quality problems, but not in other cases. The local conditions that determine at what level intermittent wind will cause problems on the grid need to be studied further. Regardless, these problems require that renewable energy producers, utilities and regulators come together to find optimal solutions. Wind intermittency is also an issue for off-grid installations. Improving the usefulness of off-grid systems calls for “hybridising” the wind machines with a WIND POWER X7
fossil generator or adding energy storage in a battery. This process is relatively straightforward from a technical perspective; however, the trade-offs for added cost and added usefulness must be addressed on a case-by-case basis. Wind Turbine Performance Prediction There is still considerable room for improvement in wind turbine performance prediction. Anemometry, terrain calibration and methods of measuring power-wind speed curves should be improved. Improved forecasting requires real-time acquisition of climatic data and models for meteorological and turbine performance assessment. Systems Autonomous and hybrid systems should be enhanced and energy infrastructure and storage need to be addressed. With further development, a variety of technologies offer potential for storage of varying duration. Capacitors, SMES batteries and flywheels could be developed for short-term (minutes, hours) energy storage. In the future, large amounts of energy might be stored over longer periods (days, weeks) by means of pumped hydro, hydrogen and regenerative fuel cells. Standardisation of Sub-systems Sub-systems should be further standardised in order to increase modularity and to contribute to reductions in the cost of system design, engineering and production. Operation and Maintenance Wind turbines located offshore and in mountainous terrain are subject to potentially very high costs for O&M and loss of availability due to climatic influences. More intelligent wind turbines could have improved selfdiagnostic capabilities, thereby reducing downtime and maintenance costs while improving reliability and availability. Longer lifetimes for components and consumables would also be desirable, especially for wind power plants in areas that are difficult to access. ● Non-technical Issues Public opposition to new wind projects has been increasingly mobilised first in dense areas and tourist locations, and now in more densely inhabited areas in Europe. NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) is a growing social issue for new wind power. New locations, especially offshore and in non-surveyed terrain, should be mapped and assessed to reduce the visual impact on sensitive populations. 7 WIND POWER 169
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY RENEWAB
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY 9, rue
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication d
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8 Prospects for Wind Power 158 Issu
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10 4. Turbine Efficiency Over Time
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Renewables are th
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Technology and Technological Develo
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Table 1 Focal Points for Policy Int
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Table 2 Ranges of Investment and Ge
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Table 3 Current and Forecast Instal
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generation. Better power quality re
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per kWh from plants with proven con
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28 Renewables for Power Generation
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30 ● basic features: characterist
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32 The natural factors which affect
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34 Figure 5 Francis Turbine Source:
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36 ● Costs Investment costs for S
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Installation costs [€/kW] 10000 8
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Electricity generation cost in USD
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● Market Installed capacity [MW]
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44 Nevertheless, hydropower project
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Worldwide hydro production [TWh/yr]
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48 Table 5 Key Factors for SHP Pote
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50 Materials Low-cost materials lik
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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER A Brief Hi
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to the alternating current (AC) req
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from USD 10 to 18 per W. Off-grid s
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companies like Sharp, Kyocera and S
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sells customised module manufacturi
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germane, and toxic metals like cadm
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Efficiency [%] 20 15 10 5 0 R&D is
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Generation costs in €/kWh 1.1 1 0
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This is seen most often in Japan, a
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System DC/AC unit costs (individual
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issue as production levels increase
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chemistry. Such developments - ulti
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78 delivered to the receiver. The r
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80 ● Thermal Storage Like hybridi
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Electricity generation cost USD cen
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84 An example of a CSP industry is
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86 If CSP plants are hybridised wit
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88 reduces the capital cost by 12-1
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90 innovations have influenced all
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92 receiver technology is entering
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94 energy storage) and higher solar
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96 but solar-field maintenance cost
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98 Further cost reductions will be
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100 Global Renewable Energy Resourc
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BIOPOWER A Brief History of Biopowe
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transport, emissions, etc.) of fast
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100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Figure 38 T
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● Swedish forestry harvesting sys
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Gross electricty generation in GWh
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Specific investement costs in € p
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Table 30 Generation Costs for 2-MW
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Page 125 and 126: GEOTHERMAL POWER A Brief History of
Page 127 and 128: eached relatively shallow depths (5
Page 129 and 130: Capital cost in 1993 USD per kW 300
Page 131 and 132: An example of a large scale power p
Page 133 and 134: ● Industry The international geot
Page 135 and 136: Cumulative global geothermal power
Page 137 and 138: Wastewater: Discharge of wastewater
Page 139 and 140: The following are areas where R&D c
Page 141 and 142: ● Market Opportunities Market Pot
Page 143 and 144: the simplest form of local distribu
Page 145 and 146: Based on country update papers for
Page 147: Power Generation Technology Combine
Page 150 and 151: 148 Commercial and technological de
Page 152 and 153: 150 Table 45 Average Investment Cos
Page 154 and 155: 152 Generation Costs Generating cap
Page 156 and 157: 154 Table 47 Top Ten Suppliers, 200
Page 158 and 159: 156 Table 49 Installed Capacity (in
Page 160 and 161: 158 On the positive side, no direct
Page 162 and 163: DKK (1999)/kWh/Year Productivity 3
Page 164 and 165: Productivity in kWh per m 2 per yea
Page 166 and 167: 164 before the intermittent nature
Page 168 and 169: 166 The 2 to 3 MW power class will
Page 172 and 173: 170 Internationally accepted requir
Page 174 and 175: 172 EPRI: Electrical Power Research
Page 177 and 178: SOURCES AND FURTHER READING Chapter
Page 179 and 180: European Commission (1997), Energy
Page 181 and 182: Sellers, R. (1996), PV Diffusion Re
Page 183 and 184: Morse, F. H. (2000), The Commercial
Page 185 and 186: Veringa, H. (2001), Biomass Paper,
Page 187 and 188: CADDET (2001), Renewable Energy New
Page 189 and 190: WEBSITES Australian Greenhouse offi
Page 191: RETScreen International: http://www
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Technology Status - NET Nowak Energie & Technologie AG

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