Technology Status - NET Nowak Energie & Technologie AG

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152 Generation Costs Generating capacity is primarily determined by the rotor-swept area and the local wind speed (regime), not by installed power. The installed power should be matched to the wind speed and rotor-swept area in order to achieve optimum energy output and the best economy. Machines with the lowest cost per unit of installed power are not necessarily the most economic ones for a particular site. As a rule of thumb, the annual energy output, of modern and properly matched wind turbines is about e = 3.2 x V 3 x AV (where V is the annual average wind speed (m/s) at hub height and A is the rotorswept area in m2 ). Doubling the wind speed means roughly an eight-fold higher energy output due to the cubic relation between wind speed and wind power. O&M costs for modern turbines can be up to half a USD cent per kWh. For wind turbines located on difficult terrain, such as offshore or in mountainous regions, this cost is likely to be higher. Availability, defined as the capability to operate when the wind speed is higher than the wind turbine’s cut-in wind speed and lower than its cut-out speed, is typically higher than 98% for modern machines. Based on system investment needed and electrical output yielded annually, generation costs can be given for a range of applications (see Figure 55). Very low generation costs (slightly above 3.5 USD cents per kWh) occur with installations characterised by low investment costs (around USD 800) and high energy output (over 2,000 kWh per kW per year). These installations are found onshore, with excellent accessibility and wind regime. The economics are generally less favourable for inland installations with lower average wind speed and for offshore installations with higher investment costs. As general economic indicators, power generation costs are USD cents 4 to 7 per kWh on land and USD cents 7 to 12 per kWh offshore. In the best locations, wind power can cost less than USD cents 3 per kWh. The best cost-competitiveness is in areas with strong wind regimes and where development and installation costs are low. Generation costs are below USD cents 4 per kWh in many coastal and some inland areas with intense but regular wind regimes and good accessibility for plant construction and grid connection. ● Industry The commercial development of grid-connected wind generators started after the oil crisis in the mid-1970s in countries like Denmark, the Netherlands and the US. In the early 1980s, most commercial wind turbines were assembled using a number of standard components such as gearboxes, generators, hydraulic WIND POWER X7
Electricity generation cost in USD cents per kWh 15.0 12.0 9.0 6.0 3.0 0.0 Figure 55 Approximated Generation Costs for Wind Power motors for yaw systems, standard bearings for the main shaft and yaw rim, etc. Only blades and control systems were specially tailored for the wind turbine industry. With increased market volume, more specialised suppliers, including larger companies, are providing tailored components. Countries with a large installed wind turbine capacity, e.g. Denmark, Germany and Spain, which currently account for 19 of the 30 GW installed wind capacity in the world, also account for most of the world’s largest wind turbine manufacturers. The seven biggest manufacturers had a market share of 86% in 2001 with a revenue of € 4.8 billion. Danish and German wind turbine manufacturers export relatively high shares of their total output. In order to minimise transport costs, more and more turbines are being manufactured by subsidiaries of European companies in other countries. Most of the leading manufacturers of large wind turbines are developing systems for offshore applications. The top three suppliers for different wind energy segments ( 1500 kW) are given in the Table 48. 7 USD 750 USD 1,000 USD 1,250 USD 1,500 USD 1,750 USD 2,000 System investment per kW installed capacity 1,500 kWh per kWp and year 2,000 kWh per kWp and year 2,500 kWh per kWp and year WIND POWER 3,000 kWh per kWp and year 3,500 kWh per kWp and year Note: Based on system investment needed and electrical output yielded annually. O&M costs are assumed to be 4% of system investment. Amortisation period is 15 years, and the discount rate is 6%. Source: <strong>NET</strong> Ltd., Switzerland. 153
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY RENEWAB
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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY 9, rue
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication d
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8 Prospects for Wind Power 158 Issu
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10 4. Turbine Efficiency Over Time
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Renewables are th
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Technology and Technological Develo
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Table 1 Focal Points for Policy Int
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Table 2 Ranges of Investment and Ge
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Table 3 Current and Forecast Instal
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generation. Better power quality re
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per kWh from plants with proven con
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28 Renewables for Power Generation
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30 ● basic features: characterist
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32 The natural factors which affect
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34 Figure 5 Francis Turbine Source:
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36 ● Costs Investment costs for S
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Installation costs [€/kW] 10000 8
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Electricity generation cost in USD
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● Market Installed capacity [MW]
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44 Nevertheless, hydropower project
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Worldwide hydro production [TWh/yr]
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48 Table 5 Key Factors for SHP Pote
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50 Materials Low-cost materials lik
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SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER A Brief Hi
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to the alternating current (AC) req
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from USD 10 to 18 per W. Off-grid s
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companies like Sharp, Kyocera and S
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sells customised module manufacturi
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germane, and toxic metals like cadm
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Efficiency [%] 20 15 10 5 0 R&D is
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Generation costs in €/kWh 1.1 1 0
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This is seen most often in Japan, a
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System DC/AC unit costs (individual
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issue as production levels increase
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chemistry. Such developments - ulti
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78 delivered to the receiver. The r
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80 ● Thermal Storage Like hybridi
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Electricity generation cost USD cen
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84 An example of a CSP industry is
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86 If CSP plants are hybridised wit
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88 reduces the capital cost by 12-1
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90 innovations have influenced all
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92 receiver technology is entering
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94 energy storage) and higher solar
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96 but solar-field maintenance cost
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98 Further cost reductions will be
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100 Global Renewable Energy Resourc
Page 105 and 106: BIOPOWER A Brief History of Biopowe
Page 107 and 108: transport, emissions, etc.) of fast
Page 109 and 110: 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Figure 38 T
Page 111 and 112: ● Swedish forestry harvesting sys
Page 113 and 114: Gross electricty generation in GWh
Page 115 and 116: Specific investement costs in € p
Page 117 and 118: Table 30 Generation Costs for 2-MW
Page 119 and 120: €/MWh 16 12 8 4 0 for reductions
Page 121 and 122: coal at the inlet to the mill, b) f
Page 123 and 124: Table 33 Cost Reduction Opportuniti
Page 125 and 126: GEOTHERMAL POWER A Brief History of
Page 127 and 128: eached relatively shallow depths (5
Page 129 and 130: Capital cost in 1993 USD per kW 300
Page 131 and 132: An example of a large scale power p
Page 133 and 134: ● Industry The international geot
Page 135 and 136: Cumulative global geothermal power
Page 137 and 138: Wastewater: Discharge of wastewater
Page 139 and 140: The following are areas where R&D c
Page 141 and 142: ● Market Opportunities Market Pot
Page 143 and 144: the simplest form of local distribu
Page 145 and 146: Based on country update papers for
Page 147: Power Generation Technology Combine
Page 150 and 151: 148 Commercial and technological de
Page 152 and 153: 150 Table 45 Average Investment Cos
Page 156 and 157: 154 Table 47 Top Ten Suppliers, 200
Page 158 and 159: 156 Table 49 Installed Capacity (in
Page 160 and 161: 158 On the positive side, no direct
Page 162 and 163: DKK (1999)/kWh/Year Productivity 3
Page 164 and 165: Productivity in kWh per m 2 per yea
Page 166 and 167: 164 before the intermittent nature
Page 168 and 169: 166 The 2 to 3 MW power class will
Page 170 and 171: 168 Grid Integration and Intermitte
Page 172 and 173: 170 Internationally accepted requir
Page 174 and 175: 172 EPRI: Electrical Power Research
Page 177 and 178: SOURCES AND FURTHER READING Chapter
Page 179 and 180: European Commission (1997), Energy
Page 181 and 182: Sellers, R. (1996), PV Diffusion Re
Page 183 and 184: Morse, F. H. (2000), The Commercial
Page 185 and 186: Veringa, H. (2001), Biomass Paper,
Page 187 and 188: CADDET (2001), Renewable Energy New
Page 189 and 190: WEBSITES Australian Greenhouse offi
Page 191: RETScreen International: http://www
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Technology Status - NET Nowak Energie & Technologie AG

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