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Weight is given to the findings of research which only gain credence if they have been
approached through 'scientific method'. In such societies, says Brunn, ethnic memory
~ at least, the dominant 'official' version of it ~ is the product of a small cultural elite.
Written histories in the nineteenth century concentrated on grand events and glorious
epochs, all serving to create and reinforce national pride: thus the artistic and
intellectual achievements of the Renaissance were recognised, as were the glories of
the British Empire. Histories which depicted life as a permanent struggle against a
hereditary enemy, and contrasted 'golden eras with those marking decline' ~
discounting the latter as either self-induced or attributable to oppression or exploitation
by alien powers. For literate societies, history provided evidence of a proud past,
offered guidance in the present and pointed to an optimistic fiiture.
The history of semi-literate peoples ~ such as those from which the Italian
speakers emigrated in the 1850s ~ had similar aims but resided partly in an oral
tradition: in the stories, proverbs and songs which were passed down through each
generation. Nineteenth century peasant culture, with its roots in feudal society, was
fractured into numerous small isolated rural communities; the needs of the people were
limited to those of the group and contact with the outside world, apart from seasonal
migration to neighbouring areas, was rare. History centred on village life rather than
'national' affairs, the latter being more commonly regarded with lack of interest or
outright hostility.^^ For Antonio Gramsci, the peasants' intellectual and practical
horizons were defined by the local environment, and by their elementary needs and
were thus materialistic and utilitarian.^^ The peasants' 'grand events' were the orally
transmitted stories of endless struggle against the elements and of the importance of