Participation and Democracy: Dynamics, Causes ... - Jacobs University

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insufficiently represented by traditional institutions of interest aggregation and articulation such as political parties. In short, elite-challenging activities demonstrate the ways citizen groups try to exercise political influence from below (Roller and Wessels 1996: 27). The positive relationship between these particular associations and elitechallenging activities reflect, therefore, the distinct positive opportunity structure prevalent in a society for people to participate in these activities. So, if elite-challenging activities did not show a trade-off with other forms of political activism at the societal level, this is all the more true for activism in civic action groups. This result is different from the findings in Roller and Wessels (1996: 29) where ‘traditional organizational memberships’ (corresponding to my interest organizations) turned out to be a better predictor for levels of legal protests than ‘memberships in new organizations’ (corresponding to the citizen action groups considered here). 47 Whether the positive linkage at the societal level also holds at the individual level is addressed in Table 6-3, complemented by a test of individual-level correlations between elite-challenging activities and active participation in interest organizations. Examining the question whether people tend to be active in one form or another, or in both forms of political participation, Table 6-3 shows, in general, a weak positive (however significant) linkage between elite-challenging activities on the one hand and the two different forms of civic activism on the other hand, suggesting that people, if they once surmounted the threshold of political activism, also tend to use multiple channels to become politically engaged. However, an important qualification should be made with regard to two groups of societies. Whereas one group shows overall a similar correlation with both types of organizational engagement (that is in postindustrial societies and the new member states of the European Union, meaning the more Western oriented new democracies in Central Europe as well as the Baltic states), all other societies are characterized by a linkage that is much stronger between elite-challenging activities and 47 The different result may be explained with three crucial differences in the design of the study. First, Roller and Wessels (1996) base their conclusions on 16 postindustrial democracies, limiting their analyses to societies within Western Europe and North America. Second, their measurement of activity in voluntary associations includes passive membership whereas mine only takes active members into account, as I am interested in political activism. Third, their ‘new organizations’ under consideration are limited to three voluntary associations: environmental, peace and animal rights groups. Important other citizen action groups like human rights organizations, organized women’s movements or social welfare groups remain unconsidered. 102
interest organizations than the one between these activities and citizen action groups. In other words, active members in political parties, labor unions and professional associations are more likely to participate in elite-challenging activities than activists in citizen action groups. Here in this group of societies, where elite-challenging activities are in general less pronounced, people seem to be mobilized into demonstrations, petitions, etc. rather through their active role in interest associations than through citizen action groups. The closer linkage between citizen action groups concerned with human rights, environmental issues or social questions, and activities outside traditional channels of political participation seems to be largely a characteristic of postindustrial democracies, as also the picture at the aggregate level suggested. The fact that the individual-level correlation between the two forms of activity has become stronger in these postindustrial societies supports this impression. 48 Table 6-3: Individual-Level Correlation between Elite-Challenging Activities and Civic Activism (WVS/EVS 1999-2001) Elite-challenging activities and citizen action groups Elite-challenging activities and interest organizations Austria .07 ** .09 *** Belgium .09 *** .08 ** Canada .15 *** .12 *** Denmark .07 * .11 ** Finland .05 .12 *** France .04 .07 ** Greece .07 * .12 *** Germany .05 * .06 * Iceland .08 * .12 *** Ireland .10 ** .09 ** Italy .09 *** .14 *** Japan .08 ** .05 Luxembourg .08 ** .06 * Malta .07 * .15 *** Netherlands .10 ** .10 ** Portugal .14 *** .10 ** Spain .11 *** .14 *** Sweden .04 .04 48 The correlation coefficient for elite-challenging activities and activity in citizen action groups doubled in these societies between 1981 and 1999 from r = .06 to r = .11. The coefficient for activity in interest organizations remained the same: r = .11 in 1981, r = .12 in 1999. All correlation coefficients were significant at the .00 level. 103
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Participation and Democracy: Dynami
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Declaration: I herewith declare tha
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C Empirical Analyses 5 “The Rise
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Figures and Tables Figure 2-1 Chang
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Figure 9-3 Figure 9-4 Elite-Challen
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Introduction “The effective isola
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forms of participation as elite-cha
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attempts to link the different appr
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Section B then outlines the methodo
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A THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The th
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citizens think that national govern
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citizens used SMS to keep informed
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2. Theoretical Framework: What Expl
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has impacted generations of academi
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28-29). The experience of these act
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in mass-based, hierarchical organiz
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Figure 2-1: Change in Party Members
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in the context of the movements the
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It is therefore no wonder that the
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that some fundamental social and cu
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constitutions: universal suffrage,
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of political activism in general an
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political consumerism) as the consc
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“subjective political competence
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have differentiated between two typ
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For the design of an empirical part
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general, political participation sh
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mobilization capacity. As these org
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(1) Resources: Participants in elit
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Hypotheses on the aggregate level:
Page 61 and 62: To measure participation in elite-c
Page 63 and 64: authors have demonstrated how a com
Page 65 and 66: different countries and languages.
Page 67 and 68: of law, scholars became more and mo
Page 69 and 70: Table 4-1: Democratic Societies Inc
Page 71 and 72: The empirical analyses exclude soci
Page 73 and 74: Will you please place each of the l
Page 75 and 76: European Social Survey The European
Page 77 and 78: and actual participation has not na
Page 79 and 80: In a first step, the single items i
Page 81 and 82: Figure 5-1: Participation in Elite-
Page 83 and 84: increase as national income rises.
Page 85 and 86: Once again, with almost two thirds
Page 87 and 88: The societies in Europe show differ
Page 89 and 90: attack. These massive demonstration
Page 91 and 92: 5.2 Trends in Elite-Challenging Act
Page 93 and 94: societies were split into English-s
Page 95 and 96: However, Figure 5-9 reveals that th
Page 97 and 98: expectancy declined (in particular
Page 99 and 100: 6. Common Patterns of Complement or
Page 101 and 102: If it was true that elite-challengi
Page 103 and 104: Figure 6-1: Elite-Challenging Activ
Page 105 and 106: This conclusion is supported by the
Page 107 and 108: Table 6-2: Individual-Level Correla
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Page 111: participation in citizen action gro
Page 115 and 116: Figure 6-5 takes up the trend depic
Page 117 and 118: 7. Down and Down We Go? Social Capi
Page 119 and 120: enough to stimulate people into act
Page 121 and 122: The European Social Survey (ESS 200
Page 123 and 124: a member of one single organization
Page 125 and 126: associations. Social activity in Eu
Page 127 and 128: tradition to assume that organizati
Page 129 and 130: Figure 7-5: Informal Networks in Eu
Page 131 and 132: Table 7-2: Individual-Level Correla
Page 133 and 134: Figure 7-6: Trust Level and Elite-C
Page 135 and 136: generalized horizontal trust also p
Page 137 and 138: Table 7-4 presents two separate reg
Page 139 and 140: Summarizing the results so far, eli
Page 141 and 142: Model 3: β 1j = γ 10 + γ 11 (Mem
Page 143 and 144: Table 7-5: Multi-Level (Hierarchica
Page 145 and 146: 8. Individual Characteristics or Co
Page 147 and 148: activities over the past decades sh
Page 149 and 150: (2) Conventional Participation Poli
Page 151 and 152: Table 8-2: Binary-Logistic Regressi
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Page 159 and 160: Inequality: Gini coefficient The in
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assess the formal structure of a de
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8.3 The Multilevel Model: What Dete
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well-known phenomenon in regression
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to replace the five single predicto
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The intraclass correlation coeffici
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Table 8-5: Multi-Level Model (HGLM)
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European societies only. The effect
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9. Elite-Challenging Activities and
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for both scales are derived. Accord
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in a country. Civil liberties are r
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9.1.2 Measures of Elite Integrity a
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Figure 9-4: Elite-Challenging Activ
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Table 9-1: Zero-Order and Partial C
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the ideal citizen voices his or her
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Continued: “Having democratic rul
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Table 9-3: Individual-Level Correla
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political interest is a dominant fa
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Continued: Interest in Politics (Pe
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participation in elite-challenging
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Continued: Tolerance towards foreig
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The results in Table 9-6 show that
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signing petitions. Major accounts o
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Causes of elite-challenging activit
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public behavior. The elite-challeng
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Bibliography Abramson, Paul R. (199
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Dahl, Robert D. (1971): Polyarchy:
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Dickerson, Mark and Thomas Flanagan
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Gerring, John, Philip Bond, William
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Huntington, Samuel P. (2000): Forew
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Karatnycky, Adrian (1999): The Decl
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Lenski, Gerhard E. (1954): Status C
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McCarthy, John D., Clark McPhail, J
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Peters, B. Guy (1998): Comparative
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Rucht, Dieter and Thomas Ohlemacher
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Stolle, Dietlind (2001): Clubs and
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Van Deth, Jan W. (1998a): Equivalen
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Associations and Political Involvem
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Checklist 1: Criteria for evaluatin
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G) Personal Autonomy and Individual
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 199
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Appendix A4-4: Internal Consistency
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Appendix A5-2: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A6-2: Individual-Level Cor
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Appendix A6-4: Factor Analysis: Unp
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Continued (1)… Social activities
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Continued (3)… Social activities
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Appendix A7-3: Social Trust in Euro
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Appendix A7-5: Stepwise Multi-Level
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Continued (2)…. Gender * Societal
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Gender (percent valid) Age (percent
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Political interest (percent valid)
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Appendix A8-4: Alternative Multi-Le
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Appendix A9-1: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A9-3: Individual-level Cor
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Appendix A9-4: Factor Analysis: Ess
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Continued: People with a different
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Finland (n=1224) 1,1 11,9 28,1 51,3
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World Values Survey/European Values
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Greece (n= 1142) 48,4 37,5 11,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1136) 34,8 31,9 18,1 (
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Joining in Boycotts 1981 1990 1999-
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Guatemala (n= 1000) 1,2 8,8 85,5 Hu
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Slovenia (n= 1035) 6,4 37,ß 36,8 (
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Attending Lawful Demonstrations 198
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Greece (n= 1142) 46,1 37,1 13,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1602) 19,3 47,0 21,1 (
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Joining Unofficial Strikes 1981 199
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Italy (n= 1348) 2,3 8,0 83,4 (n= 20
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Venezuela (n= 1200) 2,4 6,1 87,9 Vi
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Croatia (n= 1003) 0,7 16,6 73,3 Cze
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Peru (n= 1501) 1,6 11,5 80,7 Philip
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European Social Survey 2002 and 200
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Netherlands (n=2364) 22,3 77,2 23,4
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Denmark (n=1506) 22,8 76,8 28,2 71,
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Participated in illegal protest act
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