Participation and Democracy: Dynamics, Causes ... - Jacobs University

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Figure 7-1: Elite-Challenging Activities and Membership in Associations (ESS 2002) 80 70 Sweden Elite-challenging activities, in % 60 50 40 30 Spain Israel UK Norway Denmark Germany Luxembourg Finland Belgium Austria Ireland Netherlands Italy 20 10 Poland Greece Hungary Portugal Slovenia 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Membership in any association, in % Source: European Social Survey, 2002. Data are weighted to correct for a sampling bias within each sample (design weight). R = .91 *** . Elite-challenging activities: Percentage of respondents who “Have done” any of the following activities in the past 12 month: Signed petition, taken part in a lawful demonstration, boycotted certain products, or deliberately bought certain products for political, ethical or environmental reasons. Membership in any association: Percentage of respondents who are a member in any of the following organizations: sports club or club for outdoor activities; organization for cultural or hobby activities; trade union; business, professional or farmers’ organization; consumer or automobile organization; organization for humanitarian aid, human rights, minorities or immigrants; organization for environmental protection, peace or animal rights; religious or church organization; political party; organization for science, education, teachers or parents; social club, club for the young, the retired/elderly, women or friendly societies. As Figure 7-1 clearly reveals, in societies that are characterized by a vibrant associational life, the level of elite-challenging activities is comparably high (r = .91 *** ). The Scandinavian societies, for example, show both a great integration of the population into organizations and the highest level of elite-challenging activities, whereas the new democracies in Central Eastern Europe as well as the Southern European societies rank low in both organizational membership and elite-challenging activities. Apparently, the characteristics of societal networks shape the wider context of mass action (Roller and Wessels 1996: 26). The density of such networks affects how easy (or hard) it is to mobilize people into action. The closer the ties in a society, the lower the barrier to other forms of participation, independently of individual attributes: “You don’t even have to be 112
a member of one single organization (…) in order to profit from the fact that in this society the transaction cost are low” (van Deth 2001: 9). As a consequence, collective action in form of elite-challenging activities is much more likely to occur in those societies where low transaction costs provide the opportunity structure to do so. That the sheer membership levels, irrespectively of the role that members hold within these organizations, already show such a clear linkage with elite-challenging activities at the societal level should not be considered as self-evident. Within the social capital approach, one controversial issue is the question whether membership in voluntary associations is already enough to create social capital. Putnam, for example, has argued that membership without activity does not contribute to the emergence of social capital: “What really matters from the point of view of social capital and civic engagement is not merely nominal membership, but active and involved membership” (Putnam 2000: 58). According to Putnam, social capital can only emerge and be conferred when people directly interact. Where regular face-to-face encounters do not take place, for example because the members of an association only meet sporadically, communicate through email lists or limit their involvement to reading the organization’s newsletter, social capital is not built. So, activity levels, not membership rates are the appropriate measure for social capital. Others, however, have shown that empirically there is hardly any difference between active and passive members of an association (Wollebaek and Selle 2002). For the societal level, the Figures 7-2 and 7-3 demonstrate that the results of Wollebaek and Selle’s Norwegian study can be more or less corroborated: Active membership in an organization as well as social participation in general are also highly correlated with elitechallenging activities – but the linkages are even weaker than for pure membership in the previous measure of social capital. 113
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Participation and Democracy: Dynami
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Declaration: I herewith declare tha
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C Empirical Analyses 5 “The Rise
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Figures and Tables Figure 2-1 Chang
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Figure 9-3 Figure 9-4 Elite-Challen
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Introduction “The effective isola
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forms of participation as elite-cha
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attempts to link the different appr
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Section B then outlines the methodo
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A THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The th
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citizens think that national govern
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citizens used SMS to keep informed
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2. Theoretical Framework: What Expl
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has impacted generations of academi
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28-29). The experience of these act
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in mass-based, hierarchical organiz
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Figure 2-1: Change in Party Members
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in the context of the movements the
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It is therefore no wonder that the
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that some fundamental social and cu
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constitutions: universal suffrage,
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of political activism in general an
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political consumerism) as the consc
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“subjective political competence
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have differentiated between two typ
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For the design of an empirical part
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general, political participation sh
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mobilization capacity. As these org
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(1) Resources: Participants in elit
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Hypotheses on the aggregate level:
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To measure participation in elite-c
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authors have demonstrated how a com
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different countries and languages.
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of law, scholars became more and mo
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Table 4-1: Democratic Societies Inc
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Page 73 and 74: Will you please place each of the l
Page 75 and 76: European Social Survey The European
Page 77 and 78: and actual participation has not na
Page 79 and 80: In a first step, the single items i
Page 81 and 82: Figure 5-1: Participation in Elite-
Page 83 and 84: increase as national income rises.
Page 85 and 86: Once again, with almost two thirds
Page 87 and 88: The societies in Europe show differ
Page 89 and 90: attack. These massive demonstration
Page 91 and 92: 5.2 Trends in Elite-Challenging Act
Page 93 and 94: societies were split into English-s
Page 95 and 96: However, Figure 5-9 reveals that th
Page 97 and 98: expectancy declined (in particular
Page 99 and 100: 6. Common Patterns of Complement or
Page 101 and 102: If it was true that elite-challengi
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Page 105 and 106: This conclusion is supported by the
Page 107 and 108: Table 6-2: Individual-Level Correla
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Page 115 and 116: Figure 6-5 takes up the trend depic
Page 117 and 118: 7. Down and Down We Go? Social Capi
Page 119 and 120: enough to stimulate people into act
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Page 125 and 126: associations. Social activity in Eu
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Page 129 and 130: Figure 7-5: Informal Networks in Eu
Page 131 and 132: Table 7-2: Individual-Level Correla
Page 133 and 134: Figure 7-6: Trust Level and Elite-C
Page 135 and 136: generalized horizontal trust also p
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Page 139 and 140: Summarizing the results so far, eli
Page 141 and 142: Model 3: β 1j = γ 10 + γ 11 (Mem
Page 143 and 144: Table 7-5: Multi-Level (Hierarchica
Page 145 and 146: 8. Individual Characteristics or Co
Page 147 and 148: activities over the past decades sh
Page 149 and 150: (2) Conventional Participation Poli
Page 151 and 152: Table 8-2: Binary-Logistic Regressi
Page 153 and 154: the chances to participate in elite
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Page 157 and 158: Figure 8-2: 1.0 Elite-Challenging A
Page 159 and 160: Inequality: Gini coefficient The in
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Page 163 and 164: assess the formal structure of a de
Page 165 and 166: 8.3 The Multilevel Model: What Dete
Page 167 and 168: well-known phenomenon in regression
Page 169 and 170: to replace the five single predicto
Page 171 and 172: The intraclass correlation coeffici
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Table 8-5: Multi-Level Model (HGLM)
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European societies only. The effect
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9. Elite-Challenging Activities and
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for both scales are derived. Accord
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in a country. Civil liberties are r
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9.1.2 Measures of Elite Integrity a
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Figure 9-4: Elite-Challenging Activ
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Table 9-1: Zero-Order and Partial C
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the ideal citizen voices his or her
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Continued: “Having democratic rul
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Table 9-3: Individual-Level Correla
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political interest is a dominant fa
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Continued: Interest in Politics (Pe
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participation in elite-challenging
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Continued: Tolerance towards foreig
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The results in Table 9-6 show that
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signing petitions. Major accounts o
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Causes of elite-challenging activit
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public behavior. The elite-challeng
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Bibliography Abramson, Paul R. (199
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Dahl, Robert D. (1971): Polyarchy:
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Dickerson, Mark and Thomas Flanagan
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Gerring, John, Philip Bond, William
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Huntington, Samuel P. (2000): Forew
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Karatnycky, Adrian (1999): The Decl
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Lenski, Gerhard E. (1954): Status C
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McCarthy, John D., Clark McPhail, J
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Peters, B. Guy (1998): Comparative
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Rucht, Dieter and Thomas Ohlemacher
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Stolle, Dietlind (2001): Clubs and
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Van Deth, Jan W. (1998a): Equivalen
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Associations and Political Involvem
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Checklist 1: Criteria for evaluatin
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G) Personal Autonomy and Individual
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 199
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Appendix A4-4: Internal Consistency
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Appendix A5-2: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A6-2: Individual-Level Cor
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Appendix A6-4: Factor Analysis: Unp
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Continued (1)… Social activities
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Continued (3)… Social activities
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Appendix A7-3: Social Trust in Euro
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Appendix A7-5: Stepwise Multi-Level
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Continued (2)…. Gender * Societal
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Gender (percent valid) Age (percent
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Political interest (percent valid)
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Appendix A8-4: Alternative Multi-Le
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Appendix A9-1: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A9-3: Individual-level Cor
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Appendix A9-4: Factor Analysis: Ess
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Continued: People with a different
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Finland (n=1224) 1,1 11,9 28,1 51,3
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World Values Survey/European Values
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Greece (n= 1142) 48,4 37,5 11,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1136) 34,8 31,9 18,1 (
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Joining in Boycotts 1981 1990 1999-
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Guatemala (n= 1000) 1,2 8,8 85,5 Hu
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Slovenia (n= 1035) 6,4 37,ß 36,8 (
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Attending Lawful Demonstrations 198
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Greece (n= 1142) 46,1 37,1 13,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1602) 19,3 47,0 21,1 (
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Joining Unofficial Strikes 1981 199
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Italy (n= 1348) 2,3 8,0 83,4 (n= 20
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Venezuela (n= 1200) 2,4 6,1 87,9 Vi
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Croatia (n= 1003) 0,7 16,6 73,3 Cze
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Peru (n= 1501) 1,6 11,5 80,7 Philip
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European Social Survey 2002 and 200
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Netherlands (n=2364) 22,3 77,2 23,4
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Denmark (n=1506) 22,8 76,8 28,2 71,
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Participated in illegal protest act
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