Participation and Democracy: Dynamics, Causes ... - Jacobs University

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Although modernization theory would predict that societies with increasing economic capacities show more distinct patterns in the spread of elite-challenging activities, the figure largely supports that elite-challenging activities are most prevalent among those societies where resources are abundant. It should also be noted that among the societies that the World Bank classified as upper-middle income societies, more than half of them are new democracies in former communist regimes. As will be shown later, most of these societies have experienced a decline in elite-challenging activities after extraordinary high levels of mass activities during the transition period, so this might explain why the differences between societies in the two middle-income categories are not more pronounced. As a consequence of this differentiation, the next grouping of societies acknowledges that societies are not only determined by their socioeconomic development. Rather, what people think and how people act is also shaped by their cultural heritage that tends to have a rather stable impact (Inglehart and Welzel 2005: 19). As, in particular, “the collapse of communism did not create a tabula rasa by erasing people’s prior experiences; rather, those very experiences influence people’s current behavior” (Howard 2003: 105), it makes sense to control for people’s exposure to communist rule during their socialization phase. However, not only did the rigidity of the communist rule differ among the countries of the former socialist bloc. Also traditions prior to the communist regimes varied – some of the societies, in particular in Central Europe, are rooted in Western Christian traditions (such as Hungary or Slovakia), while in others, in particular in Southern Eastern Europe and among the post-soviet societies, people have been closely connected to various Christian-Orthodox churches or to Islamic religion. The Baltic states have been exceptional cases within the former Soviet Union, as they were the only Soviet republics with a Western Christian tradition. Figure 5-3, combining both socioeconomic and cultural factors, displays differences in levels of elite-challenging activities between postindustrial democracies, four different groups of post-communist societies, Latin American societies, other developing societies, and low-income societies. 74
Once again, with almost two thirds of participants, postindustrial democracies show the highest level of elite-challenging activities, and the distance to the next group of societies is again larger than the distances between all other groups. Nevertheless, even though elite-challenging activities are most pronounced in rich, established, mostly Western democracies, this form of participation is more than a peripheral phenomenon to other societies. Even in the group of societies where people engage the least, still more than 20 percent of the population is found to be active. Figure 5-3: Elite-Challenging Activities in Various Societies 35 , in % (WVS/EVS 1999-2002) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Postindustrial societies Excommunist Western societies Latin American societies Excommunist Baltic societies Excommunist Soviet societies Excommunist Eastern societies Other developing societies Low income societies Pooled sample. Data are weighted n = 1.000. 35 Postindustrial societies: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, West Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Great Britain, Northern Ireland, United States of America. Ex-communist Western societies: Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Croatia, Slovenia, East Germany. Ex-communist Eastern societies: Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republic of Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro. Ex-communist soviet societies: Russian Federation, Georgia, Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Republic of Moldova. Ex-communist Baltic societies: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania. Latin American societies: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela. Other developing societies: South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, Taiwan. Low income societies: Bangladesh, Colombia, Dominican Republic, India, Indonesia, Jordan, Morocco, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Uganda, Tanzania. Data are weighted n = 1000. 75
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Participation and Democracy: Dynami
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Declaration: I herewith declare tha
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C Empirical Analyses 5 “The Rise
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Figures and Tables Figure 2-1 Chang
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Figure 9-3 Figure 9-4 Elite-Challen
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Introduction “The effective isola
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forms of participation as elite-cha
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attempts to link the different appr
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Section B then outlines the methodo
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A THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The th
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citizens think that national govern
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citizens used SMS to keep informed
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2. Theoretical Framework: What Expl
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has impacted generations of academi
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28-29). The experience of these act
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in mass-based, hierarchical organiz
Page 33 and 34: Figure 2-1: Change in Party Members
Page 35 and 36: in the context of the movements the
Page 37 and 38: It is therefore no wonder that the
Page 39 and 40: that some fundamental social and cu
Page 41 and 42: constitutions: universal suffrage,
Page 43 and 44: of political activism in general an
Page 45 and 46: political consumerism) as the consc
Page 47 and 48: “subjective political competence
Page 49 and 50: have differentiated between two typ
Page 51 and 52: For the design of an empirical part
Page 53 and 54: general, political participation sh
Page 55 and 56: mobilization capacity. As these org
Page 57 and 58: (1) Resources: Participants in elit
Page 59 and 60: Hypotheses on the aggregate level:
Page 61 and 62: To measure participation in elite-c
Page 63 and 64: authors have demonstrated how a com
Page 65 and 66: different countries and languages.
Page 67 and 68: of law, scholars became more and mo
Page 69 and 70: Table 4-1: Democratic Societies Inc
Page 71 and 72: The empirical analyses exclude soci
Page 73 and 74: Will you please place each of the l
Page 75 and 76: European Social Survey The European
Page 77 and 78: and actual participation has not na
Page 79 and 80: In a first step, the single items i
Page 81 and 82: Figure 5-1: Participation in Elite-
Page 83: increase as national income rises.
Page 87 and 88: The societies in Europe show differ
Page 89 and 90: attack. These massive demonstration
Page 91 and 92: 5.2 Trends in Elite-Challenging Act
Page 93 and 94: societies were split into English-s
Page 95 and 96: However, Figure 5-9 reveals that th
Page 97 and 98: expectancy declined (in particular
Page 99 and 100: 6. Common Patterns of Complement or
Page 101 and 102: If it was true that elite-challengi
Page 103 and 104: Figure 6-1: Elite-Challenging Activ
Page 105 and 106: This conclusion is supported by the
Page 107 and 108: Table 6-2: Individual-Level Correla
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Page 111 and 112: participation in citizen action gro
Page 113 and 114: interest organizations than the one
Page 115 and 116: Figure 6-5 takes up the trend depic
Page 117 and 118: 7. Down and Down We Go? Social Capi
Page 119 and 120: enough to stimulate people into act
Page 121 and 122: The European Social Survey (ESS 200
Page 123 and 124: a member of one single organization
Page 125 and 126: associations. Social activity in Eu
Page 127 and 128: tradition to assume that organizati
Page 129 and 130: Figure 7-5: Informal Networks in Eu
Page 131 and 132: Table 7-2: Individual-Level Correla
Page 133 and 134: Figure 7-6: Trust Level and Elite-C
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generalized horizontal trust also p
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Table 7-4 presents two separate reg
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Summarizing the results so far, eli
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Model 3: β 1j = γ 10 + γ 11 (Mem
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Table 7-5: Multi-Level (Hierarchica
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8. Individual Characteristics or Co
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activities over the past decades sh
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(2) Conventional Participation Poli
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Table 8-2: Binary-Logistic Regressi
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the chances to participate in elite
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able to participate in selecting th
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Figure 8-2: 1.0 Elite-Challenging A
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Inequality: Gini coefficient The in
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Figure 8-5: 1.0 Elite-Challenging A
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assess the formal structure of a de
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8.3 The Multilevel Model: What Dete
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well-known phenomenon in regression
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to replace the five single predicto
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The intraclass correlation coeffici
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Table 8-5: Multi-Level Model (HGLM)
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European societies only. The effect
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9. Elite-Challenging Activities and
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for both scales are derived. Accord
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in a country. Civil liberties are r
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9.1.2 Measures of Elite Integrity a
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Figure 9-4: Elite-Challenging Activ
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Table 9-1: Zero-Order and Partial C
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the ideal citizen voices his or her
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Continued: “Having democratic rul
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Table 9-3: Individual-Level Correla
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political interest is a dominant fa
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Continued: Interest in Politics (Pe
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participation in elite-challenging
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Continued: Tolerance towards foreig
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The results in Table 9-6 show that
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signing petitions. Major accounts o
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Causes of elite-challenging activit
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public behavior. The elite-challeng
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Bibliography Abramson, Paul R. (199
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Dahl, Robert D. (1971): Polyarchy:
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Dickerson, Mark and Thomas Flanagan
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Gerring, John, Philip Bond, William
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Huntington, Samuel P. (2000): Forew
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Karatnycky, Adrian (1999): The Decl
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Lenski, Gerhard E. (1954): Status C
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McCarthy, John D., Clark McPhail, J
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Peters, B. Guy (1998): Comparative
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Rucht, Dieter and Thomas Ohlemacher
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Stolle, Dietlind (2001): Clubs and
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Van Deth, Jan W. (1998a): Equivalen
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Associations and Political Involvem
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Checklist 1: Criteria for evaluatin
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G) Personal Autonomy and Individual
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 199
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Appendix A4-4: Internal Consistency
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Appendix A5-2: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A6-2: Individual-Level Cor
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Appendix A6-4: Factor Analysis: Unp
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Continued (1)… Social activities
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Continued (3)… Social activities
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Appendix A7-3: Social Trust in Euro
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Appendix A7-5: Stepwise Multi-Level
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Continued (2)…. Gender * Societal
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Gender (percent valid) Age (percent
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Political interest (percent valid)
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Appendix A8-4: Alternative Multi-Le
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Appendix A9-1: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A9-3: Individual-level Cor
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Appendix A9-4: Factor Analysis: Ess
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Continued: People with a different
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Finland (n=1224) 1,1 11,9 28,1 51,3
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World Values Survey/European Values
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Greece (n= 1142) 48,4 37,5 11,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1136) 34,8 31,9 18,1 (
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Joining in Boycotts 1981 1990 1999-
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Guatemala (n= 1000) 1,2 8,8 85,5 Hu
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Slovenia (n= 1035) 6,4 37,ß 36,8 (
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Attending Lawful Demonstrations 198
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Greece (n= 1142) 46,1 37,1 13,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1602) 19,3 47,0 21,1 (
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Joining Unofficial Strikes 1981 199
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Italy (n= 1348) 2,3 8,0 83,4 (n= 20
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Venezuela (n= 1200) 2,4 6,1 87,9 Vi
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Croatia (n= 1003) 0,7 16,6 73,3 Cze
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Peru (n= 1501) 1,6 11,5 80,7 Philip
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European Social Survey 2002 and 200
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Netherlands (n=2364) 22,3 77,2 23,4
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Denmark (n=1506) 22,8 76,8 28,2 71,
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Participated in illegal protest act
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