Participation and Democracy: Dynamics, Causes ... - Jacobs University

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Figure 8-1 displays the relationship between the governance indicator and a society’s level of elite-challenging activism. There is a positive link between Voice and Accountability and the level of elite-challenging activism in a society (r = 0.67 *** ), with convergence at higher values of the governance indicator. Whereas at lower to medium levels of a democratic opportunity structure, only a marginal effect with respect to the spread of political activism can be observed, high scores on Voice and Accountability are closely associated with high levels of participation in petitions, boycotts and strikes. This suggests that improvements at lower levels of democratic freedom rights do not immediately translate into widespread non-institutionalized mass action. Rather, high levels of elite-challenging participation can be found in societies that provide stable and conducive conditions to associate, assemble and articulate opinions. Democracy Stock For political opportunity structures to become effective it is not only important how much freedom rights are granted to the citizens today, but also for how long these have been in place. The longer citizens experience a democratic rule, the more occasions are created for political participation, and the more time citizens have to experiment with various forms of participation (Roller and Wessels 1996: 28). “The core insight is that institutional effects unfold over time, sometimes a great deal of time, and that these temporal effects are cumulative.” (Gerring et al. 2005: 325). The measure of Democracy Stock takes this accumulation process of democratic experience into account, as democracy is considered as a stock – not level – variable (Gerring et al. 2005: 324). Polity 2 scores are added, beginning in 1900, with a 1 percent depreciation rate per year. Figure 8-2 shows how Democracy Stock and elite-challenging activities are linked: There is a positive, almost linear relationship (r = .73 *** ), meaning that societies with a longstanding ‘democratic memory’ tend to have a more active citizenry. The length of democratic experience is crucial when it comes to creating political opportunity structures for elite-challenging activities, but there are also clear ‘over-achievers’, most of them post-communist societies. Their level of elite-challenging action still reflects the legacy of a citizen-driven transition to democracy, whereas their actual democratic experience falls short in predicting this form of mass participation. 146
Figure 8-2: 1.0 Elite-Challenging Activities (WVS 2000-2005) and Democracy Stock 0.9 NZ Elite-challenging activities, in % 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 Swe Switz Aus Can Fra Bel Nor USA GB Den Gre Jap Czech Italy Slovak Ire N-Ire Braz Aut Lux Ice E-Ger W-Ger Fin Neth Alba Spain Isr Malt Croa Mali Peru Lat Slov S-Kor Ind Lith Monte Tanz Cyp Serb Eth Maced Uru Ugan Rus Mex Bu-Fa Tr & To Bos Arg Por Est Zam Pol Mold Chi Mor Nig Colom Ukr Bul Indon Ven S-Afr Hun Bang Guat Tur Gha Tai Rom Jord Singa Malay Thai 0.0 -600.00 -400.00 -200.00 0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00 Democracy Stock (1900 - 1995) N=78, R = 0.73 *** . Democracy Stock is measured between 1900 and 1995. National Affluence: GDP per capita Socioeconomic development is at the core of modernization theory, and it should be positively linked with elite-challenging activities. For one, modernization leads to a growing number and greater variety of interest groups and other associations, forming denser networks of activists and supporters. Such associational networks are conducive to mobilization and, as chapter 6 has shown, positively linked with elite-challenging activities. Another important factor is that socioeconomic development promotes an expansion of education (“educational revolution”). Information and knowledge become available to the wider public, making people more interested and aware about what is happening in their neighborhoods, cities or countries. At the same time, citizens who acquire these skills become also more confident about using their resources to articulate and promote their interests. As a result, the knowledge and information gap between elites and citizens is slowly closing. 147
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Participation and Democracy: Dynami
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Declaration: I herewith declare tha
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C Empirical Analyses 5 “The Rise
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Figures and Tables Figure 2-1 Chang
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Figure 9-3 Figure 9-4 Elite-Challen
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Introduction “The effective isola
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forms of participation as elite-cha
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attempts to link the different appr
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Section B then outlines the methodo
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A THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The th
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citizens think that national govern
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citizens used SMS to keep informed
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2. Theoretical Framework: What Expl
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has impacted generations of academi
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28-29). The experience of these act
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in mass-based, hierarchical organiz
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Figure 2-1: Change in Party Members
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in the context of the movements the
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It is therefore no wonder that the
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that some fundamental social and cu
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constitutions: universal suffrage,
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of political activism in general an
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political consumerism) as the consc
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“subjective political competence
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have differentiated between two typ
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For the design of an empirical part
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general, political participation sh
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mobilization capacity. As these org
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(1) Resources: Participants in elit
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Hypotheses on the aggregate level:
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To measure participation in elite-c
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authors have demonstrated how a com
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different countries and languages.
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of law, scholars became more and mo
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Table 4-1: Democratic Societies Inc
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The empirical analyses exclude soci
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Will you please place each of the l
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European Social Survey The European
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and actual participation has not na
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In a first step, the single items i
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Figure 5-1: Participation in Elite-
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increase as national income rises.
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Once again, with almost two thirds
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The societies in Europe show differ
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attack. These massive demonstration
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5.2 Trends in Elite-Challenging Act
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societies were split into English-s
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However, Figure 5-9 reveals that th
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expectancy declined (in particular
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6. Common Patterns of Complement or
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If it was true that elite-challengi
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Figure 6-1: Elite-Challenging Activ
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Page 107 and 108: Table 6-2: Individual-Level Correla
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Page 115 and 116: Figure 6-5 takes up the trend depic
Page 117 and 118: 7. Down and Down We Go? Social Capi
Page 119 and 120: enough to stimulate people into act
Page 121 and 122: The European Social Survey (ESS 200
Page 123 and 124: a member of one single organization
Page 125 and 126: associations. Social activity in Eu
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Page 129 and 130: Figure 7-5: Informal Networks in Eu
Page 133 and 134: Figure 7-6: Trust Level and Elite-C
Page 135 and 136: generalized horizontal trust also p
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Page 139 and 140: Summarizing the results so far, eli
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Page 143 and 144: Table 7-5: Multi-Level (Hierarchica
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Page 149 and 150: (2) Conventional Participation Poli
Page 151 and 152: Table 8-2: Binary-Logistic Regressi
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Page 159 and 160: Inequality: Gini coefficient The in
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Page 165 and 166: 8.3 The Multilevel Model: What Dete
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Page 171 and 172: The intraclass correlation coeffici
Page 173 and 174: Table 8-5: Multi-Level Model (HGLM)
Page 175 and 176: European societies only. The effect
Page 177 and 178: 9. Elite-Challenging Activities and
Page 179 and 180: for both scales are derived. Accord
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Page 183 and 184: 9.1.2 Measures of Elite Integrity a
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Page 187 and 188: Table 9-1: Zero-Order and Partial C
Page 189 and 190: the ideal citizen voices his or her
Page 191 and 192: Continued: “Having democratic rul
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Page 197 and 198: Continued: Interest in Politics (Pe
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Page 201 and 202: Continued: Tolerance towards foreig
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Causes of elite-challenging activit
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public behavior. The elite-challeng
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Bibliography Abramson, Paul R. (199
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Dahl, Robert D. (1971): Polyarchy:
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Dickerson, Mark and Thomas Flanagan
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Gerring, John, Philip Bond, William
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Huntington, Samuel P. (2000): Forew
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Karatnycky, Adrian (1999): The Decl
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Lenski, Gerhard E. (1954): Status C
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McCarthy, John D., Clark McPhail, J
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Peters, B. Guy (1998): Comparative
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Rucht, Dieter and Thomas Ohlemacher
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Stolle, Dietlind (2001): Clubs and
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Van Deth, Jan W. (1998a): Equivalen
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Associations and Political Involvem
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Checklist 1: Criteria for evaluatin
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G) Personal Autonomy and Individual
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 199
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Appendix A4-4: Internal Consistency
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Appendix A5-2: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A6-2: Individual-Level Cor
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Appendix A6-4: Factor Analysis: Unp
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Continued (1)… Social activities
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Continued (3)… Social activities
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Appendix A7-3: Social Trust in Euro
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Appendix A7-5: Stepwise Multi-Level
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Continued (2)…. Gender * Societal
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Gender (percent valid) Age (percent
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Political interest (percent valid)
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Appendix A8-4: Alternative Multi-Le
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Appendix A9-1: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A9-3: Individual-level Cor
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Appendix A9-4: Factor Analysis: Ess
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Continued: People with a different
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Finland (n=1224) 1,1 11,9 28,1 51,3
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World Values Survey/European Values
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Greece (n= 1142) 48,4 37,5 11,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1136) 34,8 31,9 18,1 (
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Joining in Boycotts 1981 1990 1999-
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Guatemala (n= 1000) 1,2 8,8 85,5 Hu
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Slovenia (n= 1035) 6,4 37,ß 36,8 (
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Attending Lawful Demonstrations 198
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Greece (n= 1142) 46,1 37,1 13,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1602) 19,3 47,0 21,1 (
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Joining Unofficial Strikes 1981 199
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Italy (n= 1348) 2,3 8,0 83,4 (n= 20
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Venezuela (n= 1200) 2,4 6,1 87,9 Vi
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Croatia (n= 1003) 0,7 16,6 73,3 Cze
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Peru (n= 1501) 1,6 11,5 80,7 Philip
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European Social Survey 2002 and 200
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Netherlands (n=2364) 22,3 77,2 23,4
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Denmark (n=1506) 22,8 76,8 28,2 71,
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Participated in illegal protest act
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