Participation and Democracy: Dynamics, Causes ... - Jacobs University

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mobilized into elite-challenging activities. This aspect also poses the biggest challenge to the future study of non-institutionalized participation. Early studies have almost exclusively focused on personal resources and motivation, whereas social movement and activists studies have rather examined network structures and mobilization effects. The main objective of future studies should be to bring those two approaches together. Finally, the consequence dimension of elite-challenging activities deserves further attention. Almost all theoretical approaches to political participation make implicit (a few: explicit) claims about the consequences of an increase or decrease, or a specific composition of determinants of non-institutionalized actions – be it for democracy, political inequality, social cohesion, or democratic accountability. A systematic empirical testing of these propositions, however, is rather scarce. Instead, anecdotal evidence is presented, or individual-level findings are the basis for drawing conclusions on the societal level. 85 Without systematically testing the proposed relationships at the adequate level of analysis, the conclusions made must remain speculative. In my point of view, this is especially true for the recuring crisis scenarios in the relationship between the citizen and the state. Looking at the long-term implications of rising elite-challenging activities for contemporary representative democracies, the consequences largely depend on the ability of democratic institutions to adapt to those changes in the citizen participation repertoire. The direction and speed of social change and individualization processes make it very unlikely that the withdrawal from traditional – largely hierarchical – mass organizations that we could observe over the past decades is trend that can be reversed. This study has shown that citizens are not turning their back on politics per se, but that they get involved on their own terms when they are concerned about specific political or social issues. In the past, democracies have proved to be astonishingly flexible and adaptive in meeting challenges. The great challenge for contemporary democracies today – which is at the same time a tremendous potential – is to reform the democratic process to meet these participation demands by its citizens. 85 This means committing an individualistic fallacy (Inglehart and Welzel 2003: 62). 200
Bibliography Abramson, Paul R. (1995): Political Participation, in: Seymour Martin Lipset (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Democracy, Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., pp. 913- 921. Adorno, Theodor W., Else Frenkel-Brunswick, Daniel J. Levinson and R. Nevitt Sanford (1950): Authoritarian Personality, New York: Harper. Allerbeck, Klaus R. (1977): Analysis and Inference in Cross-National Survey Research, in: Alexander Szalai, Ricardo Petrella, Stein Rokkan and Erwin K. Scheuch (eds.), Cross- National Comparative Survey Research. Theory and Praxis, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 373-402. Almond, Gabriel A. and Sidney Verba (1989 [1963]): The Civic Culture. Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, Newbury Park et al.: Sage. Almond, Gabriel A., G. Bingham Powell, Jr. and Robert J. Mundt (1996): Comparative Politics. A Theoretical Framework, 2nd edition, New York: HarperCollins College Publishers. Barber, Benjamin (1984): Strong Democracy. Participatory Politics for a New Age, Berkeley: University of California Press. Barnes, Samuel H. (2004): Perspectives on Political Action. Paper Presented at the ECPR Joint Sessions of Workshops, Uppsala, Sweden, April 13-18, 2004. http://www.essex.ac.uk/ECPR/events/jointsessions/paperarchive/uppsala/ws24/Barnes2.p df Barnes, Samuel H. and Max Kaase et al. (1979): Political Action. Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Beck, Ulrich (1986): Risikogesellschaft. Auf dem Weg in eine andere Moderne, Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp (English Version: Ulrich Beck (1992): Risk Society. Towards a New Modernity, London: Sage). Beck, Ulrich (2002): Losing the Traditional. Individualization and ‘Precarious Freedoms’, in: Ulrich Beck and Elizabeth Beck-Gernsheim (eds.), Individualization, London: Sage, pp.1-21. Beck-Gernsheim, Elizabeth (1998): On the Way to a Post-Familial Family. From a Community of Need to Elective Affinities, in: Theory, Culture & Society, Vol. 15(3), pp. 53-70. Beetham, David (ed.) (1994): Defining and Measuring Democracy, London: Sage. 201
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Participation and Democracy: Dynami
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Declaration: I herewith declare tha
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C Empirical Analyses 5 “The Rise
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Figures and Tables Figure 2-1 Chang
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Figure 9-3 Figure 9-4 Elite-Challen
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Introduction “The effective isola
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forms of participation as elite-cha
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attempts to link the different appr
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Section B then outlines the methodo
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A THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The th
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citizens think that national govern
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citizens used SMS to keep informed
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2. Theoretical Framework: What Expl
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has impacted generations of academi
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28-29). The experience of these act
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in mass-based, hierarchical organiz
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Figure 2-1: Change in Party Members
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in the context of the movements the
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It is therefore no wonder that the
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that some fundamental social and cu
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constitutions: universal suffrage,
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of political activism in general an
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political consumerism) as the consc
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“subjective political competence
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have differentiated between two typ
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For the design of an empirical part
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general, political participation sh
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mobilization capacity. As these org
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(1) Resources: Participants in elit
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Hypotheses on the aggregate level:
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To measure participation in elite-c
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authors have demonstrated how a com
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different countries and languages.
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of law, scholars became more and mo
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Table 4-1: Democratic Societies Inc
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The empirical analyses exclude soci
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Will you please place each of the l
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European Social Survey The European
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and actual participation has not na
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In a first step, the single items i
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Figure 5-1: Participation in Elite-
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increase as national income rises.
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Once again, with almost two thirds
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The societies in Europe show differ
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attack. These massive demonstration
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5.2 Trends in Elite-Challenging Act
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societies were split into English-s
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However, Figure 5-9 reveals that th
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expectancy declined (in particular
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6. Common Patterns of Complement or
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If it was true that elite-challengi
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Figure 6-1: Elite-Challenging Activ
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This conclusion is supported by the
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Table 6-2: Individual-Level Correla
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democracy alive at the very grassro
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participation in citizen action gro
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interest organizations than the one
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Figure 6-5 takes up the trend depic
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7. Down and Down We Go? Social Capi
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enough to stimulate people into act
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The European Social Survey (ESS 200
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a member of one single organization
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associations. Social activity in Eu
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tradition to assume that organizati
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Figure 7-5: Informal Networks in Eu
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Table 7-2: Individual-Level Correla
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Figure 7-6: Trust Level and Elite-C
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generalized horizontal trust also p
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Table 7-4 presents two separate reg
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Summarizing the results so far, eli
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Model 3: β 1j = γ 10 + γ 11 (Mem
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Table 7-5: Multi-Level (Hierarchica
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8. Individual Characteristics or Co
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activities over the past decades sh
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(2) Conventional Participation Poli
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Table 8-2: Binary-Logistic Regressi
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the chances to participate in elite
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able to participate in selecting th
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Figure 8-2: 1.0 Elite-Challenging A
Page 159 and 160: Inequality: Gini coefficient The in
Page 161 and 162: Figure 8-5: 1.0 Elite-Challenging A
Page 163 and 164: assess the formal structure of a de
Page 165 and 166: 8.3 The Multilevel Model: What Dete
Page 167 and 168: well-known phenomenon in regression
Page 169 and 170: to replace the five single predicto
Page 171 and 172: The intraclass correlation coeffici
Page 173 and 174: Table 8-5: Multi-Level Model (HGLM)
Page 175 and 176: European societies only. The effect
Page 177 and 178: 9. Elite-Challenging Activities and
Page 179 and 180: for both scales are derived. Accord
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Page 183 and 184: 9.1.2 Measures of Elite Integrity a
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Page 189 and 190: the ideal citizen voices his or her
Page 191 and 192: Continued: “Having democratic rul
Page 193 and 194: Table 9-3: Individual-Level Correla
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Page 197 and 198: Continued: Interest in Politics (Pe
Page 199 and 200: participation in elite-challenging
Page 201 and 202: Continued: Tolerance towards foreig
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Page 205 and 206: signing petitions. Major accounts o
Page 207 and 208: Causes of elite-challenging activit
Page 209: public behavior. The elite-challeng
Page 213 and 214: Dahl, Robert D. (1971): Polyarchy:
Page 215 and 216: Dickerson, Mark and Thomas Flanagan
Page 217 and 218: Gerring, John, Philip Bond, William
Page 219 and 220: Huntington, Samuel P. (2000): Forew
Page 221 and 222: Karatnycky, Adrian (1999): The Decl
Page 223 and 224: Lenski, Gerhard E. (1954): Status C
Page 225 and 226: McCarthy, John D., Clark McPhail, J
Page 227 and 228: Peters, B. Guy (1998): Comparative
Page 229 and 230: Rucht, Dieter and Thomas Ohlemacher
Page 231 and 232: Stolle, Dietlind (2001): Clubs and
Page 233 and 234: Van Deth, Jan W. (1998a): Equivalen
Page 235 and 236: Associations and Political Involvem
Page 237 and 238: Checklist 1: Criteria for evaluatin
Page 239 and 240: G) Personal Autonomy and Individual
Page 241 and 242: 1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
Page 243 and 244: 1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
Page 245 and 246: 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 199
Page 247 and 248: Appendix A4-4: Internal Consistency
Page 249 and 250: Appendix A5-2: Elite-Challenging Ac
Page 251 and 252: Appendix A6-2: Individual-Level Cor
Page 253 and 254: Appendix A6-4: Factor Analysis: Unp
Page 255 and 256: Continued (1)… Social activities
Page 257 and 258: Continued (3)… Social activities
Page 259 and 260: Appendix A7-3: Social Trust in Euro
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Appendix A7-5: Stepwise Multi-Level
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Continued (2)…. Gender * Societal
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Gender (percent valid) Age (percent
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Political interest (percent valid)
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Appendix A8-4: Alternative Multi-Le
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Appendix A9-1: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A9-3: Individual-level Cor
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Appendix A9-4: Factor Analysis: Ess
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Continued: People with a different
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Finland (n=1224) 1,1 11,9 28,1 51,3
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World Values Survey/European Values
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Greece (n= 1142) 48,4 37,5 11,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1136) 34,8 31,9 18,1 (
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Joining in Boycotts 1981 1990 1999-
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Guatemala (n= 1000) 1,2 8,8 85,5 Hu
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Slovenia (n= 1035) 6,4 37,ß 36,8 (
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Attending Lawful Demonstrations 198
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Greece (n= 1142) 46,1 37,1 13,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1602) 19,3 47,0 21,1 (
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Joining Unofficial Strikes 1981 199
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Italy (n= 1348) 2,3 8,0 83,4 (n= 20
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Venezuela (n= 1200) 2,4 6,1 87,9 Vi
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Croatia (n= 1003) 0,7 16,6 73,3 Cze
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Peru (n= 1501) 1,6 11,5 80,7 Philip
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European Social Survey 2002 and 200
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Netherlands (n=2364) 22,3 77,2 23,4
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Denmark (n=1506) 22,8 76,8 28,2 71,
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Participated in illegal protest act
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