Participation and Democracy: Dynamics, Causes ... - Jacobs University

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Figure 8-4 displays the relationship between inequality in a society and its level of elitechallenging activism – both are only weakly linked (r = -.40 *** ), its distribution resembles more an exponential than a linear function. There is a modest trend that more equal societies are also more active, for example all postindustrial democracies in the upper left of the figure, but most postcommunist societies with a similar score on the inequality measure (here: low) show significantly lower levels of elite-challenging participation. Tertiarization As a third indicator for socioeconomic opportunity structures, the level of tertiarization is introduced. The shift of the major workforce from the industrial to the service sector did not only change the modes of production, but most importantly the communication structures in a society. Information and knowledge formation have gained tremendous importance, creating new demands for people at the workplace: “Service and knowledge workers deal with people and concepts, operating in a world where innovation and the freedom to exercise individual judgements are essential. Creativity, imagination, and intellectual independence become central” (Inglehart and Welzel 2005: 28-29). The experience of these activities does not leave people’s value orientations unaltered: They show an increasing emphasis on autonomy, choice, creativity and self-expression, which should be positively linked with elite-challenging activities. Tertiarization is measured by subtracting the share of labor force working in industry from the share of the labor force employed in the service sector of a society. Data come from the International Labour Organization, more specifically from their Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM, fifth edition, 2007). Most of the data refer to the year 2000. 65 Figure 8-5 shows how tertiarization and mass participation in a society are linked: there is a positive relationship (r=.54 *** ), but with quite some deviation from the trend. 65 Missing or questionable data have been cross-checked with other data sources and then either replaced by an alternative year of the ILO measure, or supplemented with data from the CIA Factbook (Nigeria 1999, India 2003, Mali 2005) or from the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE, Bosnia Herzegovina 2006, Serbia and Montenegro 2000). 150
Figure 8-5: 1.0 Elite-Challenging Activities (WVS 2000-2005) and Tertiarization 0.9 NZ Elite-challenging activities, in % 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 Swe Switz Aus Fra Can Bel Nor GB USA Gre Den Czech Italy Jap Ire N-Ire Slovak Lux Aut Braz Ice E-Ger W-Ger Fin Neth Alba Spain Isr Malt Mali Ind Croa Serb S-Kor Maced Eth Slov Monte Lith Cyp Tanz Lat Uru Ugan Mex Zam Bos Bu-Fa Por Rus Pol Est Chi Mold Nig Mor Colom Bul Ukr Ven Indon S-Afr Bang Tai Hun Tur Gha Guat Rom Jord Malay Singa Thai Peru Tr & To Arg 0.0 0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 Postindustrialization (% employed in service minus % industry sector) N = 78. R = 0.54 *** Happiness The link between happiness and the level of elite-challenging action in a society is not necessarily straightforward. One the one hand, the level of happiness can be taken as a proxy for the prevalence (or absence) of relative deprivation in a society. As we know from happiness research, people’s happiness tends to reflect how they perceive their position relative to others. In that sense, the societal happiness level can be considered as a supplement to the inequality measure, for the first represents a subjective assessment, the latter an objective assessment of how resources are distributed in the society. On the other hand, levels of happiness are closely linked with trust, tolerance and self expression values, and with democracy and economic prosperity (Inglehart 1990, 2006). As the previous analyses have confirmed, these characteristics themselves are conducive for elite-challenging activities. The measure for the level of happiness in a society comes 151
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Participation and Democracy: Dynami
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Declaration: I herewith declare tha
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C Empirical Analyses 5 “The Rise
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Figures and Tables Figure 2-1 Chang
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Figure 9-3 Figure 9-4 Elite-Challen
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Introduction “The effective isola
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forms of participation as elite-cha
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attempts to link the different appr
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Section B then outlines the methodo
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A THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The th
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citizens think that national govern
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citizens used SMS to keep informed
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2. Theoretical Framework: What Expl
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has impacted generations of academi
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28-29). The experience of these act
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in mass-based, hierarchical organiz
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Figure 2-1: Change in Party Members
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in the context of the movements the
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It is therefore no wonder that the
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that some fundamental social and cu
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constitutions: universal suffrage,
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of political activism in general an
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political consumerism) as the consc
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“subjective political competence
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have differentiated between two typ
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For the design of an empirical part
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general, political participation sh
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mobilization capacity. As these org
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(1) Resources: Participants in elit
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Hypotheses on the aggregate level:
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To measure participation in elite-c
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authors have demonstrated how a com
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different countries and languages.
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of law, scholars became more and mo
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Table 4-1: Democratic Societies Inc
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The empirical analyses exclude soci
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Will you please place each of the l
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European Social Survey The European
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and actual participation has not na
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In a first step, the single items i
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Figure 5-1: Participation in Elite-
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increase as national income rises.
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Once again, with almost two thirds
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The societies in Europe show differ
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attack. These massive demonstration
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5.2 Trends in Elite-Challenging Act
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societies were split into English-s
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However, Figure 5-9 reveals that th
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expectancy declined (in particular
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6. Common Patterns of Complement or
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If it was true that elite-challengi
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Figure 6-1: Elite-Challenging Activ
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This conclusion is supported by the
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Table 6-2: Individual-Level Correla
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Page 115 and 116: Figure 6-5 takes up the trend depic
Page 117 and 118: 7. Down and Down We Go? Social Capi
Page 119 and 120: enough to stimulate people into act
Page 121 and 122: The European Social Survey (ESS 200
Page 123 and 124: a member of one single organization
Page 125 and 126: associations. Social activity in Eu
Page 127 and 128: tradition to assume that organizati
Page 129 and 130: Figure 7-5: Informal Networks in Eu
Page 131 and 132: Table 7-2: Individual-Level Correla
Page 133 and 134: Figure 7-6: Trust Level and Elite-C
Page 135 and 136: generalized horizontal trust also p
Page 137 and 138: Table 7-4 presents two separate reg
Page 139 and 140: Summarizing the results so far, eli
Page 141 and 142: Model 3: β 1j = γ 10 + γ 11 (Mem
Page 143 and 144: Table 7-5: Multi-Level (Hierarchica
Page 145 and 146: 8. Individual Characteristics or Co
Page 147 and 148: activities over the past decades sh
Page 149 and 150: (2) Conventional Participation Poli
Page 151 and 152: Table 8-2: Binary-Logistic Regressi
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Page 157 and 158: Figure 8-2: 1.0 Elite-Challenging A
Page 159: Inequality: Gini coefficient The in
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Page 165 and 166: 8.3 The Multilevel Model: What Dete
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Page 169 and 170: to replace the five single predicto
Page 171 and 172: The intraclass correlation coeffici
Page 173 and 174: Table 8-5: Multi-Level Model (HGLM)
Page 175 and 176: European societies only. The effect
Page 177 and 178: 9. Elite-Challenging Activities and
Page 179 and 180: for both scales are derived. Accord
Page 181 and 182: in a country. Civil liberties are r
Page 183 and 184: 9.1.2 Measures of Elite Integrity a
Page 185 and 186: Figure 9-4: Elite-Challenging Activ
Page 187 and 188: Table 9-1: Zero-Order and Partial C
Page 189 and 190: the ideal citizen voices his or her
Page 191 and 192: Continued: “Having democratic rul
Page 193 and 194: Table 9-3: Individual-Level Correla
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Page 197 and 198: Continued: Interest in Politics (Pe
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Page 201 and 202: Continued: Tolerance towards foreig
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Page 205 and 206: signing petitions. Major accounts o
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Bibliography Abramson, Paul R. (199
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Dahl, Robert D. (1971): Polyarchy:
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Dickerson, Mark and Thomas Flanagan
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Gerring, John, Philip Bond, William
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Huntington, Samuel P. (2000): Forew
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Karatnycky, Adrian (1999): The Decl
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Lenski, Gerhard E. (1954): Status C
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McCarthy, John D., Clark McPhail, J
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Peters, B. Guy (1998): Comparative
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Rucht, Dieter and Thomas Ohlemacher
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Stolle, Dietlind (2001): Clubs and
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Van Deth, Jan W. (1998a): Equivalen
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Associations and Political Involvem
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Checklist 1: Criteria for evaluatin
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G) Personal Autonomy and Individual
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1981 1982 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1
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1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 199
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Appendix A4-4: Internal Consistency
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Appendix A5-2: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A6-2: Individual-Level Cor
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Appendix A6-4: Factor Analysis: Unp
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Continued (1)… Social activities
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Continued (3)… Social activities
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Appendix A7-3: Social Trust in Euro
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Appendix A7-5: Stepwise Multi-Level
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Continued (2)…. Gender * Societal
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Gender (percent valid) Age (percent
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Political interest (percent valid)
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Appendix A8-4: Alternative Multi-Le
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Appendix A9-1: Elite-Challenging Ac
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Appendix A9-3: Individual-level Cor
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Appendix A9-4: Factor Analysis: Ess
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Continued: People with a different
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Finland (n=1224) 1,1 11,9 28,1 51,3
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World Values Survey/European Values
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Greece (n= 1142) 48,4 37,5 11,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1136) 34,8 31,9 18,1 (
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Joining in Boycotts 1981 1990 1999-
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Guatemala (n= 1000) 1,2 8,8 85,5 Hu
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Slovenia (n= 1035) 6,4 37,ß 36,8 (
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Attending Lawful Demonstrations 198
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Greece (n= 1142) 46,1 37,1 13,7 Gua
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Slovakia (n*=1602) 19,3 47,0 21,1 (
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Joining Unofficial Strikes 1981 199
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Italy (n= 1348) 2,3 8,0 83,4 (n= 20
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Venezuela (n= 1200) 2,4 6,1 87,9 Vi
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Croatia (n= 1003) 0,7 16,6 73,3 Cze
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Peru (n= 1501) 1,6 11,5 80,7 Philip
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European Social Survey 2002 and 200
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Netherlands (n=2364) 22,3 77,2 23,4
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Denmark (n=1506) 22,8 76,8 28,2 71,
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Participated in illegal protest act
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