Europeanisation, National Identities and Migration ... - europeanization

194 Norbert Cyrus
which are most affected by European integration: in industries such as car
production, jobs can be transferred abroad. But in construction, agriculture and
facility management, jobs are territorially bounded (Lubanski 1999). In these sectors
the reliance on the free movement of workers and services across Europe leads
to the physical presence of foreign workers in the national territory. Due to this
constellation, the transformation in these sectors is a sensitive and highly politicised
process (Däubler 1995). Several trends have contributed in the last two decades to
a dramatic transformation process in the construction sector:
1 Since the mid-1970s, the shadow economy has increased in Germany
(Schneider and Ernste 2000). The growth of the shadow economy indicates that
the Fordist and neo-corporatist social arrangements are breaking down. The
macroeconomic orientation is replaced by an operational economic orientation
that favours short-term arrangements and irregular or illegal employment.
According to surveys, half of the German population have no reservations
about personally participating in the shadow economy as a seller or buyer, if
the opportunity arose (Lamnek et al. 2000). Today, moonlighting and illegal
employment is widespread among the native population. Even if illegal
employment of foreign workers contributes to the shadow economy, it is neither
the cause nor the central aspect (Cyrus 2001a). In construction, the change in
the production structure has facilitated the increase of illegal employment.
2 Stretching back as far as the mid-1980s, the production structure in the
construction industry experienced significant transformation. Huge construction
enterprises proceeded to conclude contracts not with their own employees,
but with subcontractors if required (cf. Cremers 1998; Hochstadt et al. 1999:
124). In 1975 the ratio of subcontracting to contracts of employment in
the entire German construction industry was 13 per cent, and that within the
large firms was nearly 24 per cent. In 1996 it was 24 per cent for the entire
industry and 41 per cent for the large firms. Meanwhile, all large firms and
a good number of medium and small ones simultaneously acted as general
contractors or as ‘turnkey contractors’ (Syben 1998: 17). Subcontracting is
a widespread option in construction, and contracts may pass through eight or
more subcontractors. In the end the work is often carried out by small ‘sportshoes
enterprises’ employing workers under informal or illegal conditions
(Nienhüser 1999).
3 During a period in which the German market attracted a growing number
of foreign enterprises and workers, employers reckoned that the presence of
foreign enterprises operating with lower costs would make it possible to lower
German standards: ‘A number of firms cancelled their membership of the
employers’ association, while regional associations withdrew from the national
organisations, in both cases with a view to avoiding commitments to the
standards laid down in the collective agreements’ (Lubanski 1999: 285; see also
Treichler 1998: 230ff).
4 After the collapse of the GDR and the re-unification, the domestic supply of
construction workers increased significantly. Due to the lower productivity in