Grain Legumes and Green Manures for Soil Fertility in ... - cimmyt

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Table 2. Pigeonpea production and exports (t) in Tanzania, 1993·97 1993 1994 Production 38,000 34,000 1995 1996 42,000 '55,000 Exports 6934 17,633 3594 17,430 Source: TCFB for exports; FAD for production data Table 3. Pigeonpea production and exports, Malawi 1997 41,000 15,489 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Production 43,311 52,601 87,880 72.67218,400b 80,000b Whole 1209 13852 1506 7877 Processed 6394 7709 6552 9704 Total Whole 10343 24865 10866 21740 18400 b 19600 b Exports equivalent' • Whole equivalent calculated assuming arecovery yield of 70% for dhill b Only aggregate data available Sources: FEWS and FAD 1994·97: Bvumbwe Research Station; Patel, 1998 1998·1999: Malawi National Statistical Office ning in 1999/2000 because of traders buying directly in that country. The bulk of Malawi's exports are milled into fur dhal, thus adding value, and shipped to India. Trader interviews revealed that both domestic and international markets are very volatile because there is negligible consumption of dry pigeonpea in domestic markets; pigeonpea is mostly exported. The international market is highly globalized and dominated by India, the major producer and consumer. Tables 4 and 5). Export demand depends largely on production in India -- demand and prices for African pigeonpea are high when there is a poor crop in India and Myanmar. Trader interviews also show that there is a marketing window for exports from Tanzania and Malawi, which opens around August to September and closes in October or November. Subsequently prices drop because the crops in India and Myanmar are harvested. This is an opportunistic market. Tanzanian and 'Malawian traders need. to discover prices, obtain confirmed orders with Table 4. World pigeonpea production ('000 t), 1980·98 1980·82 1990·92 1996·98 1996·98 1% share) India 1983 2432 2420 83.8 Myanmar 29 47 159 5.5 Africa 165 254 250 8.7 Rest of the world 56 72 58 2.0 Total 2805.4 2805 2887 100 Source: FADSTAT. 2001 Table 5. World dry pea imports ('000 t), 1995·99 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 European Union 2522 3838 1530 1882 1890 India 173 155 282 257 366 Total 3603 4743 2538 2845 3016 Source: FAD. 2001 specified prices before they start buying from farmers, and then buy the crop, transport grain to export centers, clean, pack, and export it before prices in India start to fall. Before declaring prices to farmers, traders take into account bagging costs, transportation, handling, cleaning, port charges, freight, local levies, corporate tax, corruption and harassment charges, and financial costs. An increase in any of these cost elements is passed down to smallholder farmers because the farm level-derived supply is highly inelastic in the short run. Exporters are reluctant to hold inventory stocks because of the high price uncertainty of the Indian market. Because Indian traders have monopolistic market power and can drive prices down, forward contracting with farmers is difficult since exporters cannot assure farmers the contracted prices. Market Participants' Assessment of Opportunities and Constraints to Increasing Competitiveness Trader interviews, analysis of volumes traded, and international prices indicate mixed prospects for increasing the long-term competitiveness of African pigeonpea exports. Historically there has been a strong export market demand, but this market is shrinking due to increased competition from other exporters (notably Myanmar) and substitution of pigeonpea with yellow pea (exported by Canada). In the past five years, Myanmar has more than quadrupled exports to India, driving down wholesale prices (Table 6). There also has been a sharp increase of competing yellow pea exports from Canada (Table 7). Because yellow peas have been used in the past as animal feed, they are being exported to India, the Middle East, and North Africa at extremely low prices. Because of. increasing price competition, the prospects for producing pigeon pea as a cash crop for the export market are diminishing (Table 8). hldeed, Tanzania and Malawi have lost market share and farm gate prices have declined compared to three years ago, when exports were increasing, production in India was poor, and Myanmar was still not competitive (Table 9). Traders reported that opportunities exist for exporting to niche markets in Europe. But the volumes are small, about 1000 to 1500 t annually, and markets get Table 6. Myanmar Table 7. Annual exports of dry peas pigeonpea (I) exports to from Canada ('000 t), 1997·2001 India, 1999·2001 Canada to Asia 1999 73,430 1997·98 395 2000 185,964 1998·99 700 2001 293,934 1999·00 638 Source: Directorate of Economics 2000·01 850 and Statistics. Ministry of Agriculture, India Source: Agriculture and Agri·Food Canada, FAO 230 Grain Legumes and Green Manures for Soil Fertility in Southern Africa
Table 9. Average Table 8. Pigeonpea import prices, US pigeonpea prices (US$/t) $ per onne C.I•• . f M urn bai 19952001 paid by marketing agents September October November at the first assembly 1995 375 415 400 stage, Malawi and 1996 315 320 295 Tanzania, 1998·2002 1997 n.a. n.a. 445 Malawi Tanzania 1998 450 410 395 1998 483 478 1999 325 300 310 1999 431 288 2000 300 n.a. n.a. 2000 336 248 2001 295 275 250 2001 139 136 Source: The Pulse Importers AssociatIOn 2002 154 quickly saturated. Another possibility is to supply pigeonpea as green vegetables to Europe. The companies surveyed did not have experience with these niche markets. To expand exports, there is a need to target particular niches and develop ways of reducing prices. Trader interviews revealed that the major determinants of competitiveness in international markets are consistent quality and quantity, price, and timeliness of delivery, especially for the August November window. Buyers look for grain color, size and milling characteristics, including ease of dehulling, shape, cleanness, and uniformity. White grains are preferred and fetch premium price~. B~bati White from northern Tanzania and whIte PIgeonpea varieties from Malawi have a unique taste that Asian and European customers like; and this explains why exporting firms are still surviving. In terms of grain size, market requirements vary. Indian millers prefer small to medium-grained varieties such as Babati White, while European millers require large-sized grains. Moreover, size requirements can change rapidly from large to small from one year to the next because of shifts in milling technology. Compared to Myanmar and India, Malawi and northern Tanzania produce better quality pigeonpea (Table 10). However, pigeonpea from central and southern Tanzania is mostly red color and poor quality because of insect damage. Infestation begins in the field, during the flowering stage. Insects are carried over into storage, and cause high losses. Quality standards are largely determined by traders who buy, grade, and sort grain for specific markets. For farmers to obtain a high-quality crop, Table 10. Grain quality traits relevant for the milling industry Africa Myanmar Yellow pea Grain size Medium to large Small to medium Large Grain shape Round Round Round Ease of dehulling Low Fair Very high Cleanness High Low High Weeviled grains Fair High Low Homogeneity High Low High Average yields % 65·70 65·75 90 various issues need to be addressed, including correct choice of variety, seed delivery systems for getting pure seed to farmers, crop management, pest and disease management, harvesting methods, post-harvest management and handling during the various stages from farm gate through assembly, transportation, cleaning, 9rading and packing for export. Traders cited several major constraints affecting the pigeonpea sub sector in Malawi and Tanzania: • Low yield • Poor quality • Low farm gate prices • High transport costs • Lack of information • Attitudes towards traders • Lack of domestic markets • Inconsistent government policies Yield Because yields are low, grain cannotbe delivered at competitive prices. This is partly because farmers use recycled seed of traditional varieties (low yielding, and susceptible to Fusarium wilt) and use poor crop management practices. Also farm gate prices are not high enough to attract investment from other competing activities -- farmers often view pigeonpea as a "wild" crop and focus their in vestments on other cash crops. Quality Pigeonpea from central and southern Tanzania is of poor quality. The varieties are not white-seeded, crop management (especially pest and disease con trol) is poor, harvesting and post-harvest manage ment are poor. Weevil infestation is a major prob lem. Farm gate price Farmers receive a much lower price than the prices offered by exporters at the factory gate. This is be cause of the large number of intermediaries and in efficient trading mechanisms. For example, export ers believe that they offer prices as competitive as anywhere in the world. Farmers believe that the prices they receive are too low for pigeonpea to compete with alternative activities. During the 2000/01 marketing season, exporters in Malawi were offeririg MK 10/kg at the factory gate, while farmers received not more than MK 5/kg at the farm gate. The first middleman was making MK 1/ kg and the other intermediaries were earning at least MK 2/kg. Traders interviewed for this study indicated that farmers are justified when they com plain that farm gate prices are low. Grain Legumes and Green Manures for Soil Fertility in Southern Africa 231
Page 2 and 3:
Grain Legumes and Green Manures for
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Acknowledgments • The Leopard Roc
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Evall!ating mucuna green manure tec
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INTRODUCTION AND CONFERENCE OBJECTI
Page 12 and 13:
Table 1. Paradigm shifts underlying
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100 90 80 - - 0 - - Uptake by ihe m
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- 6 ~ 9 8 7 0- 5 CḎ ns 4 0::: 3
Page 18 and 19:
Table 3. Millet grain and total dry
Page 20 and 21:
Dvorak KA 1996. Adoption potential
Page 23 and 24:
LEGUMES FOR SOIL FERTILITY IN SOUTH
Page 25 and 26:
to the system in such a way that th
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Muetzelfeldt, R.1. 1995. A framewor
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ing capacity. Legumes offer other b
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people/km2), land holdings are smal
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ments. It would help researchers to
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Own livestock Gununo farmers for th
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Questions and Answers ~ey Papers To
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Historical Perspective on Soyabean
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ganic amendment for resource-poor f
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MPhil. Thesis. University of Zimbab
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deal of research work has been bias
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1600 '7 ns 1400 ~ 1200 Cl ~ 1000 "C
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Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)
Page 54 and 55:
Boswell EP, Koide RT, Shumway DL, A
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Materials and Methods The trial was
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0.9 0.8 ~ 0.7 Rec '-' 0.6 Vl ::9 0.
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Series no 5. Soil Science SOciety o
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Materials and Methods Persistence o
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content resulted in increased rhizo
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(Mugwiia and Murwira, 1997). Howeve
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Table 2. Average maize yield estima
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implied that most fanners prefer to
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] Questions and Answers Rhizobium,
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ADDING A NEW DIMENSION TO THE IMPRO
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Materials and Methods The study use
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a) Chikwaka b) Chinyika !21 C. absu
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Table 3. N, P and Kconcentrations (
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Abstract SCREENING OF SHORT DURATIO
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Table 2. Characteristics of short d
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RISK DIVERSIFICATION OPPORTUNITIES
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management technologies with differ
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Table 3. Expected annual returns (Z
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Table 6. Risk diversification indic
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een renewed interest in green manur
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unfertilised maize crop of over 200
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Questions and Answers Screening of
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GREEN MANURE AND FOOD LEGUMES RESEA
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7000 6000 ';' €.. 5000 .~MzSole :
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Table 5. Maize grain yield (kg ha")
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Phiri, A.D.K. 1999. Effects of Sesb
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amount of roots with sl:nnhemp. It
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It was proved that a mixed farming
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Table 3. Above·ground biomass (t/h
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and horticulture in Zimbabwe: Case
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GRAIN LEGUMES AND GREEN MANURES IN
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Results Table 1. Adaptation of gree
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Four rates of fertilizer N were app
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THE ROLE OF COWPEA (VIGNA UNGUICULA
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Table 1. Non-legume cropping patter
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Table 9. Common pests on cowpeas as
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few of the farmers interviewed acqu
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Murwira, H.K., M.J. Swift and P.G.H
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Materials and Methods On farm exper
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18000 1600) 14000 a) Zambia 12000 m
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EFFECT OF DIFFERENT GREEN MANURE LE
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.. ~ Table 2. The effect of time o
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Chivinge, O.A., E. Kasembe, and I.K
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times with regionally specific adap
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ter content at 180 cm was still wel
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to amount of biomass, quality of bi
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with the natural fallow, which did
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and K to maize as an equivalent amo
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forts to understand the mechanisms
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gen recovery rates in relation to p
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The first steps to improve soil fer
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Questions and Answers .Identificat
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MUCUNA - MAIZE ROTATIONS AND SHORT
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Table 3. Percent nitrogen (% N) con
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~e decomposition of legume residues
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Table 3. Effect of forage legumes o
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available nutrients and vice versa,
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Conclusion and Recommendation Mucun
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Specific objectives were to: • Te
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'"~ v '" ~ ~ 1400000 1200000 100000
Page 187 and 188: EFFECT OF SURFACE APPLICATION AND I
Page 189: it 4 a···· · ... - :.!! e.....
Page 193 and 194: PERFORMANCE OF GREEN MANURES AND GR
Page 195: Mungwi soil, cowpea and soyabean pr
Page 198 and 199: Among BNF systems, symbiotic system
Page 200 and 201: 3500 .f"'3000 ca ,c2500 CI "" - 200
Page 202 and 203: above-ground biomass was not transl
Page 204 and 205: 3000 "0 ]i >. ,5 ~ C> 800 600 400 2
Page 206 and 207: Most interventions involving green
Page 208 and 209: ~ ~~----.-~r-~-------------r~~ Aoo
Page 210 and 211: stover N, followed by after pigeon
Page 212 and 213: tems in Malawi and Zimbabwe. Procee
Page 214 and 215: 1965). The tailings and AgLi were a
Page 216 and 217: The significant soybean yield could
Page 218 and 219: twice the yield is necessary. We ha
Page 220 and 221: Table 1. Maize and Grain Legumes Pr
Page 222 and 223: Recommendations and Conclusion In v
Page 224 and 225: performance of private sector compa
Page 226 and 227: the investment costs incurred. The
Page 228 and 229: Results and Planning Workshop. Soil
Page 231 and 232: A SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF LEGUME
Page 233 and 234: Table 1. Gross margins from the dif
Page 235 and 236: Abstract LINKING TECHNOLOGY DEVELOP
Page 237: 3. If households are linked to prod
Page 241 and 242: ance of sorghum-pigeonpea intercrop
Page 243: Mligo, J.K., 1995. Pigeonpea breedi
Page 246 and 247: To Charles Nhemachena, et al. Q: 1)
Page 248 and 249: • Assessment of the potential ben
Page 250 and 251: few studies characterized the house
Page 252 and 253: • Conduct more research to measur
Page 254: Socio-Economics, Policy and Technol
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