Human Development in India - NCAER

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well-being of the older population 147Table A.9.1bStatewise Distribution of Elderly Population and Selected CharacteristicsFor Individuals Age 60 and AboveElderly As Characteristics Economic Conditions ResidencePer cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Mean Median Per cent Per cent Per cent Adultsof Total Distrib. in Female Widowed Household Household Poor Working in Joint Aged 15–59Population Category Income Income Family (per cent)All India 8.3 100.0 49.4 36.9 56,377 30,640 22.2 41 77 2.9Jammu and Kashmir 7.3 1.1 44 34.3 1,08,852 70,569 2.6 46 86 4.2Himachal Pradesh 10.4 0.8 52.1 37.7 74,055 52,992 3.3 61 79 2.9Uttarakhand 10.4 2.2 57.2 44.2 56,287 31,065 35.8 48 81 2.8Punjab 9.4 2.8 48.3 33.4 87,743 60,000 3.7 32 83 3.1Haryana 8.7 2.0 51 34 82,742 50,600 11.3 32 83 3.0Delhi 3.5 0.6 45.2 26.1 1,09,302 93,850 11.9 19 76 3.0Uttar Pradesh 7.6 13.4 46.8 35.2 51,722 28,180 25.5 53 80 3.1Bihar 7.4 6.4 43.7 33 36,936 22,350 13.8 50 81 3.0Jharkhand 4.6 2.1 37.6 23.6 56,461 31,952 41.2 42 85 4.0Rajasthan 8.2 5.4 54 34 57,757 35,682 24 37 81 2.9Chhatisgarh 7.4 2.5 53.6 41.1 42,053 24,503 59.1 45 76 2.6Madhya Pradesh 7.8 5.1 50.3 36.8 44,034 22,890 39.5 44 79 3.0North-East 7.1 1.0 45.8 34.9 88,845 66,018 10 46 65 3.1Assam 4.7 1.3 32.7 23 45,141 27,000 23.4 46 47 3.3West Bengal 8 7.1 49.3 39.5 58546 38,600 20 32 72 2.9Orissa 9.6 4.6 49.6 35.7 32,473 18,252 32.8 48 78 2.8Gujarat, Daman, Dadra 8.2 5.0 53.1 37.4 58,279 32,407 10.6 38 76 2.7Maharashtra/Goa 9.3 11.3 52 38.1 62,974 38,300 26 40 82 2.9Andhra Pradesh 9 7.9 50.6 39 37506 24,722 7.1 35 73 2.4Karnataka 8.5 5.1 50.5 39.1 62,469 27,300 16.5 41 78 3.0Kerala 13.4 5.0 54.6 37 1,02,970 45,000 26.9 23 77 2.5Tamil Nadu/Pondicherry 9.8 7.3 46.5 44.3 44,517 26,649 20.1 35 61 2.2Note: Distrib. refers to Distribution.Source: IHDS 2004–5 data.
10Gender and Family DynamicsMany chapters in this volume have highlighted gender disparitiesin various markers of well-being. These disparitiesare receding in some areas, such as education (Chapter 6),but remain large in others, such as employment and wages(Chapter 4), and are even widening in others such as sex ratioat birth (Chapter 8). As discussed in other chapters, many ofthese inequalities are rooted in institutional structures—suchas labour markets—which provide unequal access to menand women. In this chapter, we focus on cultural normsand their operation within households. Anyone who hasseen burqa-clad girls zooming around on two wheelers inAhmedabad, or women in ghunghat working on constructionsites knows that tradition is not destiny. However, itis also important to note that gender inequality emergeswithin a context of cultural norms. Marriage and kinshippatterns provide a background against which parents arefaced with heart wrenching choices between sons anddaughters, resulting in the preferential treatment of boys.This chapter provides empirical information regarding thebehaviours and norms that shape the narrative of women’slives.TRADITION AND CONTOURS OFWOMEN’S LIVESMarriage and kinship patterns affect both men’s and women’slives. As a vast number of sociological and anthropologicalstudies attest, marriage and kinship practices in India varytremendously between regions, social classes, and communities.But these myriad variations notwithstanding, somebroad patterns shape women’s lives. These patterns are identifiedbelow.Early and Arranged MarriageIn spite of rising levels of education and images of growingwesternization in India, love marriages remain a rarity, evenamong urban educated elite. India is unusual, even amongdeveloping countries, in that marriage in India is almostuniversal and most men and women marry at a relativelyyoung age. 1 As Table A.10.1a indicates, even though the legalminimum age at marriage for women is 18, 60 per cent aremarried before that age. The average age at marriage rangesbetween 16 and 23 years among ever-married women 25years and older in the IHDS sample. 2 Women in poor and lesseducated households often marry around the age of 16, buteven women from better off and more educated householdsmarry around age 19–20. The average age at marriage is 19.3years in metropolitan cities and is considerably lower in lessdeveloped villages. Regional differences in age at marriageare striking, with an average age at marriage of 15–17 yearsin central states like Bihar and Madhya Pradesh, and a higheraverage age at marriage in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, aswell as in the southern states (see Table A.10.1b).1For data on age at marriage in other developing countries, see Mensch, Singh, and Casterline (2005).2We exclude ever-married women under age 25 from this calculation. If we were to include younger cohorts, then women who marry at young ageswould be included and those who delay marriage would not. Thus, including younger cohorts would bias the sample towards women who marry at youngages, such as those in rural areas and those with low levels of education.
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAUMANEVELO
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAHUMANDEVE
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ToThe 41,554 households who partici
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viiicontentsSOCIAL CHANGES11. Socia
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x tables, figures, and boxes6.1 Enr
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xiitables, figures, and boxes6.1a L
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ForewordIndia has been fortunate as
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PrefaceOn account of the size of it
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acknowledgements xixWhile space doe
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xxii research team and advisorsO.P.
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AbbreviationsASERBPLCHCDPTFPSHCRHDI
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1IntroductionLong years ago we made
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introduction 5the agricultural stag
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introduction 7on income points out,
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2Income, Poverty, and InequalityAs
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income, poverty, and inequality 13t
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income, poverty, and inequality 15A
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income, poverty, and inequality 173
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income, poverty, and inequality 19R
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income, poverty, and inequality 21T
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income, poverty, and inequality 23D
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agriculture 29Figure 3.1Source: IHD
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agriculture 31Figure 3.2bSource: IH
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agriculture 33other religious minor
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agriculture 35Figure 3.5Source: IHD
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agriculture 37Table A.3.1aCultivati
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4EmploymentChapter 2 noted tremendo
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employment 41Box 4.1Education Does
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employment 43in urban areas, animal
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employment 45not surprising that Ta
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employment 47These agricultural and
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employment 49Table A.4.1a Work Part
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employment 51Table A.4.2a: Number o
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employment 53Table A.4.3a: Type of
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employment 55Table A.4.3b: Statewis
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household assets and amenities 61WA
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household assets and amenities 63Bo
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household assets and amenities 65Fi
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household assets and amenities 67an
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household assets and amenities 69Bo
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household assets and amenities 71Ta
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6EducationThe chapters on income (C
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education 77Figure 6.1aSource: IHDS
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education 7995 per cent children ag
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education 81Figure 6.3 Educational
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education 836-14 year old, about 40
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education 85in a lose-lose situatio
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education 87society. Arithmetic ski
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education 89Table A.6.2aDiscontinua
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education 91Table A.6.3a Schooling
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education 93Table A.6.4a Reading, W
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education 95Table A.6.5a Skill Leve
Page 122 and 123: 7Health and Medical CareThroughout
Page 124 and 125: health and medical care 99Box 7.1Al
Page 126 and 127: health and medical care 101Figure 7
Page 128 and 129: health and medical care 103Source:
Page 132 and 133: health and medical care 107Medical
Page 134 and 135: health and medical care 109Sixty ni
Page 136 and 137: health and medical care 111increase
Page 140 and 141: health and medical care 115Box 7.3T
Page 142 and 143: health and medical care 117Table A.
Page 144 and 145: health and medical care 119Table A.
Page 146: health and medical care 121Table A.
Page 150 and 151: 8Child Well-beingThe well-being of
Page 152 and 153: child well-being 127privileged and
Page 154 and 155: child well-being 129Source: IHDS 20
Page 156 and 157: child well-being 131age. Our result
Page 158 and 159: child well-being 133Table A.8.1a In
Page 160 and 161: child well-being 135Table A.8.2bSta
Page 162 and 163: child well-being 137Table A.8.3bSta
Page 164 and 165: well-being of the older population
Page 174 and 175: gender and family dynamics 149Not s
Page 176 and 177: gender and family dynamics 151withi
Page 178 and 179: gender and family dynamics 153monet
Page 180 and 181: gender and family dynamics 155DISCU
Page 182 and 183: gender and family dynamics 157Table
Page 192: gender and family dynamics 167Table
Page 196 and 197: 11Social Integration and ExclusionT
Page 198 and 199: social integration and exclusion 17
Page 208 and 209: villages in a global world 183mean
Page 210 and 211: villages in a global world 185Table
Page 218: villages in a global world 193Figur
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13Social Safety Nets in IndiaPublic
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social safety nets in india 199Anty
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social safety nets in india 201THE
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social safety nets in india 203HIGH
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social safety nets in india 205(Tab
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14ConclusionI was again on a great
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conclusion 209enrolment, it also un
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conclusion 211availability of work
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Appendix I—IHDS: The DesignOne of
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appendix i 215Figure AI.2 India Hum
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appendix i 217Table AI.1Statewise D
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appendix i 219(Table AI.2 contd )Ne
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appendix i 221developed for NSS emp
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Appendix II—Chapter Organization
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appendix ii 225(Table AII.1 contd )
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appendix ii 227will often require t
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BibliographyAbbas, A.A. and G.J. Wa
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ibliography 231Blyn, G. (1966). Agr
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ibliography 233Malik, S. (1979). So
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