Human Development in India - NCAER

income, poverty, and inequality 21Table 2.6Headcount Ratio of Population below Poverty(NSS and IHDS)NSS 61 RoundIHDS***CES*EUS**Mixed Uniform AbridgedRecall RecallAndhra Pradesh 11.1 15.8 12.3 6.8Assam 15.0 19.7 18.0 24.6Bihar 32.5 41.4 35.0 17.0Chhattisgarh 32.0 40.9 30.1 63.3Delhi 10.2 14.7 12.3 13.9Gujarat 12.5 16.8 12.6 13.1Haryana 9.9 14.0 12.1 11.3Himachal Pradesh 6.7 10.0 7.7 4.3Jammu & Kashmir 4.2 5.4 3.6 3.4Jharkhand 34.8 40.3 34.4 49.0Karnataka 17.4 25.0 21.7 18.3Kerala 11.4 15.0 13.2 26.8Madhya Pradesh 32.4 38.3 34.0 45.5Maharashtra 25.2 30.7 27.9 27.9Orissa 39.9 46.4 42.9 41.3Punjab 5.2 8.4 8.2 4.9Rajasthan 17.5 22.1 19.6 26.7Tamil Nadu 17.8 22.5 19.2 18.3Uttar Pradesh 25.5 32.8 29.4 33.2Uttarakhand 31.8 39.6 34.8 35.7West Bengal 20.6 24.7 25.1 23.1All India 21.8 27.5 24.2 25.7Notes: *Government of India (2007), Poverty Estimates for2004–5, Planning Commission, Press Information Bureau, Marchand**Author’s calculations using NSS 61st round employment andunemployment surveys unit record data.Source: ***IHDS 2004–5.Orissa, Jharkhand, and Madhya Pradesh have high poverty.Exceptions include Bihar, which has a lower IHDS than theNSS poverty rate, and Chhattisgarh and Kerala, which havehigher IHDS than NSS poverty rates.Table A.2.1a shows differences in poverty across differentstrata of Indian society. Adivasis are the most vulnerablegroup, with nearly 50 per cent below the povertyline. Dalits and Muslims, with poverty rates of 32 per centand 31 per cent, are also above the national average. TheHCR is lowest at 12 per cent for other minority religionsand, similarly low for forward caste Hindus at 12.3per cent.Poverty diminishes substantially with household education.Only 7 per cent of the households in which an adulthas a college degree are in poverty range, compared to 38per cent for those with education below primary school.Combined with the high incomes for the well educatedhouseholds, reported earlier, this observation reinforces theimportance of education in providing livelihoods and raisingfamilies out of poverty.While poverty rates are associated with householdincome and consumption, unlike them they take into accounthousehold size. Hence, although poverty is concentrated inhouseholds in the lowest income and expenditure quintiles,9 per cent of individuals living in households in the highestincome quintile and 2 per cent in households in the highestconsumption quintile are poor. Adjustment for householdsize also changes the social group position. For example,Muslims appear to be closer to OBCs in terms of medianincome and consumption, but poverty rates, which areadjusted for household size, bring them closer to Dalits.CONTOURS OF INCOME INEQUALITYThroughout this report, we will discuss inequality inincome, health, education, and other dimensions of humandevelopment, with a particular focus on inequality betweendifferent states, urban and rural areas, and different socialgroups. However, one of the reasons these inequalities becomeso striking is the overall inequality in income distributionin India. We discuss the broad outlines of these incomeinequalities below. When discussing human development inIndia, a focus on inequality is particularly important becausethe gap between the top and bottom is vast. The top 10per cent of households (that is the 90th percentile) earn morethan Rs 1,03,775, whereas the bottom 10 per cent (that is,the 10th percentile) earn Rs 8,000 or less (Table 2.1), anelevenfold difference. This gap is not simply the result ofa few billionaires who have appropriated a vast amount ofIndian wealth. It reflects inequalities at various levels in theIndian society. The income gap between the top and bottom10 per cent is almost equally a result of the gap between themiddle and the poor (3.5 times) and that between the richand the middle (3.7 times).Table 2.7 reports Gini statistics, the most commonoverall indicator of income inequality. Gini coefficients canrange from 0.0 (perfect equality) to 1.0 (total inequality).Much of the discussion regarding inequality in India hasfocused on consumption-based inequality. With Gini coefficientsof about 0.37, India is considered to be a moderatelyunequal country by world standards. For example, the Ginicoefficient for Scandinavia and Western Europe is generallybelow 0.30, while that for middle-income developingcountries tends to range from 0.40 to 0.50, and that in someof the poorest nations exceeds 0.55.