Human Development in India - NCAER

appendix ii 225(Table AII.1 contd )Rural Urban Total10–11 Std 12 17 1412 Some college 8 13 10College graduate 8 27 13Household IncomeNegative Rs 999 3 1 21st Quintile (Rs 1,000–14,000) 25 6 202nd Quintile (Rs 14,001–22,950) 23 10 193rd Quintile (Rs 22,951–36,097) 20 19 204th Quintile (Rs 36,098–69,000) 17 26 205th Quintile (Rs 69,001+) 12 38 19Source: IHDS 2004–5 data.sex ratios are examined in Chapters 8 and 10. Because womenand men live in the same households, they don’t differ greatlyon household characteristics (although, somewhat morewomen live in low income households). Individual differencesare substantial, however, as will be seen throughout theremaining chapters. Men average 5.1 years of education, forinstance, compared to women’s 3.6 years.AgeIndia’s fertility decline is fairly recent, so India is still a youngcountry. Forty five per cent of IHDS household membersare under 21. The young are somewhat more concentratedin poorer states, where the fertility decline has been theweakest, and in poorer households. There are more elderly(age 60 or more) in states with an early fertility decline (forexample, Kerala), or where out-migration of the workingage population leaves a higher concentration of the elderly(for example, Himachal Pradesh). Their well-being receivesattention in Chapter 9. Age is inversely correlated with yearsof schooling since education has expanded manifold sinceindependence. This correlation needs to be kept in mindin evaluating some tables since several human developmentoutcomes tend to increase with both more education, andolder ages.EducationEducation is one of the most consistent predictors offavourable human development outcomes. Everything fromincomes to health to social connections is higher among thebetter educated. Because of educational expansion, India hasmany highly qualified graduates whose future is promising.The country also still has many illiterates whose struggles areoften poorly rewarded. The tables that follow divide years ofeducation into groups, according to the school system’snatural break points. More than two in five adults have hadno schooling. A small group, 9 per cent, started primaryschool without finishing. Over a quarter of adults finishedprimary school without completing secondary school.Almost a quarter of adults, however, have completed their10th Standard. Ten per cent finished at that level, 6 per centfinished higher secondary school, and 7 per cent are collegegraduates.Higher levels of education are more common amongevery advantaged group. Urban residents are more educatedthan rural residents. High income households have moreeducated members than poor households. Forward castesand non-Muslim minority religions have considerably moreeducation, on an average, than other groups while Dalitsand Adivasis have the least. Some of the many advantagesof urban, affluent, forward castes result from their highereducation, but some part of their higher education resultsfrom their many other advantages.StatesRegional inequalities have provoked a growing debate asparts of India have grown especially rapidly in recent years.Differences across states are a recurring theme in IHDSresults, often overwhelming differences by class and socialgroup. But there are limitations to the extent of state differencesthat can be reliably reported. The survey was fielded inthirty three states and union territories.Sample sizes vary substantially across these states andterritories (see Table AI.1). Care must always be taken notto rely too heavily on the position of any one state in thedistribution of state outcomes. Sampling errors almostalways overlap between states with similar positions on any