Human Development in India - NCAER

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conclusion 209enrolment, it also uncovers tremendous differences at alllevels of skill development. More than two-thirds of childrenaged 8–11 from forward castes and minority religions canread simple paragraphs, compared with less than half of thosefrom Dalit and Adivasi households. These group differencespersist even after we take into account school enrolment,parental education, and income. We know too little aboutthe actual operation of schools to be able to explain thesedifferences, but it is clear that remedial action in primaryschools—and perhaps even before then—is needed in orderto equalize the playing field. It is particularly worrisometo note that Muslim children are as disadvantaged as Dalitand Adivasi children, although little attention has beenpaid to religious background as a source of educationaldisadvantage. At the other end of the skill spectrum, morethan a third of forward caste males and more than half ofminority religions have some English skills compared to lessthan a third of OBC males, one in five Muslims, one in fiveDalits, and one in seven Adivasis. Differences among womenare even greater.Gender forms another axis along which IHDS foundtremendous disparities. The IHDS, the NSS, and theCensus record extremely low rates of female labour forceparticipation. Education fails to reduce these differences,with women’s labour force disadvantage growing ratherthan reducing at levels of education up to higher secondaryeducation. When women are in the labour force, they tendto work mostly on family farms or caring for livestock. Evenwhen women engage in paid work, their daily income is only53 paise per rupee earned by men in rural areas and 68 paisein urban areas.Women’s economic vulnerability is compounded bytheir social vulnerability. More than 95 per cent of newbrides live with their in-laws after marriage, and more than40 per cent do not have their natal family nearby. Wives,therefore, have few sources of social support and must relyon husbands and in-laws for both financial and social needs.A preference for sons over daughters remains strong, so sexselective abortions result in more male than female births,and once born, girls still experience higher mortality ininfancy and childhood.SPATIAL DISPARITIESInequalities between cities and villages, and among rich andpoor states, are not new. However, recent economic changeshave heightened these disparities. As agriculture has stagnated,urban employment has come to play an even greaterrole in shaping economic well-being. 2 Moreover, historicalaccidents as well as state policies have led to higher economicgrowth in some states than in others, resulting in wideninginterstate disparities. 3 Political and social differences havealso played a role. 4 The result is the striking patterns of spatialinequality the IHDS has found across almost all indicators ofhuman development.Urban AdvantageSince official poverty lines are set at different levels for urbanand rural areas, poverty rates in villages appear quite similarto those in towns or cities. IHDS found rates of 26.5 forrural areas and 23.7 for urban areas, a difference only slightlygreater than found in the NSS. For example, the NSSpoverty rate for urban areas was 25.7 in urban areas and 28.3in rural areas. 5 However, limiting our focus to poverty ratesobscures other dimensions of locational advantage. Urbanareas more often have running water, electricity, and localmedical facilities. Hence, even the poorest urban residentshave greater access to basic amenities than wealthier ruralresidents. For example, 83 per cent of urban households inthe lowest income quintile have electricity, almost comparableto the 89 per cent electrification of rural households in thetop quintile. Teachers and doctors in urban areas are morelikely to live close to their work and less likely to be absent,increasing the quality of overall schooling and medical care.This is easily seen in the difference in skill acquisition forchildren aged 8–11. Among children living in metropolitanareas, 69 per cent can read a simple paragraph, while only47 per cent of the children in the least developed villagescan read.This report has documented the particularly high urbanadvantage in human development in the six metropolitanareas—Mumbai, New Delhi, Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai,and Hyderabad—compared with two- and three-tier cities.Similarly, the rural disadvantage is particularly sharp in theleast developed villages. Indians in metropolitan areas seemto live in a totally different universe from their brothersand sisters in the least developed villages. They have higherhousehold incomes (median income of Rs 72,000 versusRs 20,297). A higher proportion of adults who speak Englishfluently (16 versus 2 per cent for males) and have somecomputing skills (19 versus 2 per cent), have a cell phonein the household (24 versus 1 per cent), have a flush toilet(55 versus 7 per cent), have children who have had all basicvaccinations (62 versus 40 per cent), and lower child mortality(31 versus 82 per thousand).2Ramaswamy (2007).3Deaton and Drèze (2002).4Chhibber and Nooruddin (2004); Banerjee, Somnathan, and Iyer (2005).5These figures use a uniform recall method. A mixed-recall method yields results that are even closer: 21.8 for rural areas and 21.7 for urban areas.
210 human development in indiaRegional DisparitiesOne of the most striking results in this report are thelarge state differences in almost all indicators of humandevelopment (see Box 14.1).Infant mortality rates in Kerala (estimated at nine inthe IHDS) rival those of developed countries. In contrast,those in Uttar Pradesh (estimated at 80 in the IHDS) aresubstantially higher. Similarly, female literacy rates inthe North-East are 81 per cent, about twice the rate inRajasthan.Regional disparities in income, education, health, andother dimensions of human development, are well known.However, the causes of these disparities remain poorlyunderstood. Like others who have noted these disparities,we do not attempt to explain them. However, this sectionhighlights the results from preceding chapters that might spura discussion about how to best understand these differencesin order to develop effective public policy.Several observations are worth noting. Substantialstate differences in economic development affect both theBox 14.1Regional Differences Are Often Larger Than Other DifferencesResults presented in this report indicate that on a variety of dimensions of human development, differences between states are often as large,if not larger than, the differences by income, education, urban/rural residence, and caste or religion. Although, some of the state leveldifferences may be due to education, income, or other personal characteristics, contextual factors seem to play an independent role.StateIncomeState Differences in Selected IndicatorsHouseholds Children Women Women Under 5with Electricity Aged 8–11 Aged 15–59 Married Mortality18+ Hours Can Read Work Before 18 (per 1,000)(per cent) (per cent) (per cent) (per cent)Lowest 3 39 26 19 11(Bihar) (UP) (Punjab) (Kerala) (Kerala)Highest 99 83 79 86 116(Himachal) (Himachal) (Himachal) (Bihar) (Uttar Pradesh)Difference 96 44 53 –67 105Bottom Quantile 45 45 61 70 78Top Quantile 66 73 30 42 37Difference 21 28 –31 –28 –41Social GroupDalit 55 44 51 71 94Forward Castes 64 71 37 49 50Difference 9 27 –14 –22 –44EducationNone 41 35 63 75 92College graduate 67 80 27 7 37Difference 26 45 –36 –68 –55Urban/RuralLess developed village 38 47 62 70 82Metropolitan city 90 69 15 38 31Difference 52 22 –47 –32 –51Table cross Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix AppendixReference Table A.5.1 Table A.6.4 Table A.4.1 Table A.10.1 Table A.8.1Source: IHDS 2004–5 data.
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAUMANEVELO
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAHUMANDEVE
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ToThe 41,554 households who partici
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viiicontentsSOCIAL CHANGES11. Socia
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x tables, figures, and boxes6.1 Enr
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xiitables, figures, and boxes6.1a L
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ForewordIndia has been fortunate as
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PrefaceOn account of the size of it
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acknowledgements xixWhile space doe
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xxii research team and advisorsO.P.
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AbbreviationsASERBPLCHCDPTFPSHCRHDI
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1IntroductionLong years ago we made
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introduction 5the agricultural stag
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introduction 7on income points out,
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2Income, Poverty, and InequalityAs
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income, poverty, and inequality 13t
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income, poverty, and inequality 15A
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income, poverty, and inequality 173
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income, poverty, and inequality 19R
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income, poverty, and inequality 21T
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income, poverty, and inequality 23D
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agriculture 29Figure 3.1Source: IHD
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agriculture 31Figure 3.2bSource: IH
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agriculture 33other religious minor
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agriculture 35Figure 3.5Source: IHD
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agriculture 37Table A.3.1aCultivati
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4EmploymentChapter 2 noted tremendo
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employment 41Box 4.1Education Does
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employment 43in urban areas, animal
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employment 45not surprising that Ta
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employment 47These agricultural and
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employment 49Table A.4.1a Work Part
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employment 51Table A.4.2a: Number o
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employment 53Table A.4.3a: Type of
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employment 55Table A.4.3b: Statewis
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household assets and amenities 61WA
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household assets and amenities 63Bo
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household assets and amenities 65Fi
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household assets and amenities 67an
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household assets and amenities 69Bo
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household assets and amenities 71Ta
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6EducationThe chapters on income (C
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education 77Figure 6.1aSource: IHDS
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education 7995 per cent children ag
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education 81Figure 6.3 Educational
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education 836-14 year old, about 40
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education 85in a lose-lose situatio
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education 87society. Arithmetic ski
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education 89Table A.6.2aDiscontinua
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education 91Table A.6.3a Schooling
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education 93Table A.6.4a Reading, W
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education 95Table A.6.5a Skill Leve
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7Health and Medical CareThroughout
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health and medical care 99Box 7.1Al
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health and medical care 101Figure 7
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health and medical care 103Source:
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health and medical care 107Medical
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health and medical care 109Sixty ni
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health and medical care 111increase
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health and medical care 115Box 7.3T
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health and medical care 117Table A.
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8Child Well-beingThe well-being of
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child well-being 127privileged and
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child well-being 129Source: IHDS 20
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child well-being 131age. Our result
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child well-being 133Table A.8.1a In
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child well-being 135Table A.8.2bSta
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child well-being 137Table A.8.3bSta
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well-being of the older population
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gender and family dynamics 149Not s
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gender and family dynamics 151withi
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gender and family dynamics 153monet
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gender and family dynamics 155DISCU
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gender and family dynamics 157Table
Page 184 and 185: gender and family dynamics 159Table
Page 192: gender and family dynamics 167Table
Page 196 and 197: 11Social Integration and ExclusionT
Page 198 and 199: social integration and exclusion 17
Page 208 and 209: villages in a global world 183mean
Page 210 and 211: villages in a global world 185Table
Page 218: villages in a global world 193Figur
Page 222 and 223: 13Social Safety Nets in IndiaPublic
Page 224 and 225: social safety nets in india 199Anty
Page 226 and 227: social safety nets in india 201THE
Page 228 and 229: social safety nets in india 203HIGH
Page 230 and 231: social safety nets in india 205(Tab
Page 232 and 233: 14ConclusionI was again on a great
Page 236 and 237: conclusion 211availability of work
Page 238 and 239: Appendix I—IHDS: The DesignOne of
Page 240 and 241: appendix i 215Figure AI.2 India Hum
Page 242 and 243: appendix i 217Table AI.1Statewise D
Page 244 and 245: appendix i 219(Table AI.2 contd )Ne
Page 246 and 247: appendix i 221developed for NSS emp
Page 248 and 249: Appendix II—Chapter Organization
Page 250 and 251: appendix ii 225(Table AII.1 contd )
Page 252 and 253: appendix ii 227will often require t
Page 254 and 255: BibliographyAbbas, A.A. and G.J. Wa
Page 256 and 257: ibliography 231Blyn, G. (1966). Agr
Page 258 and 259: ibliography 233Malik, S. (1979). So
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