Human Development in India - NCAER

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villages in a global world 185Table 12.3Availability of PDS Shops, Banks, Post Offices, Buses, and Phones in the VillagePublic Bank Post Bus LandlineDistribution in Village Office Stop PhoneSystem Shop in Village in Village in VillageAll India* 72 30 53 51 79Jammu and Kashmir 75 40 45 30 85Himachal Pradesh 46 19 46 58 98Punjab/Chandigarh 79 48 67 62 98Haryana 81 47 58 63 100Uttar Pradesh 79 16 43 19 91Uttarkhand 35 15 10 10 60Bihar 67 38 61 39 84Jharkhand 77 8 15 58 62Rajasthan 53 22 55 52 82Madhya Pradesh 51 21 36 39 69Chhatishgarh 53 8 24 41 57West Bengal 64 17 52 32 86Orissa 65 23 42 40 69Assam 74 8 16 13 76North-East 67 30 33 48 70Gujarat, Daman, Dadra 80 34 75 71 88Maharashtra/Goa 88 39 53 65 91Andhra Pradesh 93 33 81 68 94Karnataka 75 35 65 77 96Kerala 75 64 77 52 82Tamil Nadu/Pondicherry 83 34 74 74 89Notes: *Tables present unweighted summary from village questionnaires. These data are nationwide but not nationallyrepresentative.Source: IHDS 2004–5 data.paved road, kirana (grocery) shop, bus stop, landline andmobile access to telephone, post office, police station, bazaar,and bank—we find that villages that are farthest from thedistrict headquarters are the least likely to have access to thesedevelopment inputs. Figure 12.1 shows a precipitous dropin the number of items available to a village as the distancefrom district headquarters increases.Note that in the previous chapters we have described thedifferences in a variety of human development indicators,such as health, education, and employment opportunitiesand their relationship to village development. These chaptersshow that villages with access to at least six of the teninfrastructure facilities described above have considerablygreater access to health care, education, and employmentopportunities.Finally, it is worth noting that while many villageshave access to various kinds of infrastructure on paper, andoften in the form of buildings or bus shelters, the actualprovision of services is defunct or unreliable, as evidenced bythe case of electricity. For example, in some villages, PublicDistribution System (PDS) shops are often closed because oflack of supplies.EDUCATION IN RURAL INDIA:UNEVEN DEVELOPMENTIndia is receiving global recognition for producing savvyengineers, doctors, and other highly trained professionals.Early government investments in high quality medical andengineering schools seems to be paying rich dividends toa section of the population that can be compared with the
186 human development in indiaFigure 12.1 Number of Infrastructure Items Available by Distance to District HeadquartersSource: IHDS 2004–5 data.best in the world. In urban areas, there are many excellenteducational institutions at the elementary, upper primary,and high school levels. However, as we documented inChapter 6, the quality of education is highly variable. Onlyabout half the children, aged between 8–11 in rural areas,are able to read a simple paragraph. Many children drop outof the schooling system, either because of a lack of accessto schools or poor returns to education in rural areas. TheIHDS results presented in Chapter 6 document that asubstantial fraction of students completing Standard 5 dropout before completing Standard 10, and this is particularlytrue in rural areas. This finding may be related to a lack ofaccess to schools in rural areas. Though, almost all villagesin India boast of a government primary school, reflected inhigh primary school enrolment rates documented earlier,as Table 12.4 indicates, this is not true of higher levels ofeducation, particularly secondary schools.In some cases where government schools are distant,private schools may fill the gap. We documented an increasingnumber of rural children attending private schools (about20 per cent). However, private schools are still rare in ruralareas, with nearly 60 per cent of the villages not having aprivate school of any kind. It is important to note that theabsence of school from villages is not synonymous with totallack of access to schools. In many instances, even when aschool is not located in the village, it may be accessible in anearby village. Table 12.5 shows the location of educationalfacilities in the village and within 1–5 km for primary, upperprimary, secondary, and higher secondary schools, as well ascolleges, whether they are public or private.In many parts of India, children have access to a primary(Standards 1–5) and upper primary (Standards 5–8) schoolwithin walking distance from the village, even if not withinthe village. This access declines at the secondary level (Standards9–10).At higher levels of education (that is, higher secondaryand beyond), almost all states fare poorly. Overall, only 13per cent of villages have access to a government higher secondaryschool. Kerala leads with 48 per cent of the villageshaving access to a government higher secondary school, andPunjab follows with 35 per cent.It is important to note that the absence of school fromvillages does not imply total lack of access to schools.If we include access to private higher secondary schools,more than 50 per cent of villages have a high school within5 km. As Table 12.5 indicates, in Kerala, almost all villageshave some type of a high school within 5 km. Punjab andTamil Nadu also fare quite well, with more than 70 per centof villages having access to a higher secondary school within5 km. However, Bihar and Jharkhand fare poorly even whenprivate schools are included.Dissatisfaction with the public school system is evidencedby a growing trend among households at all levelsof income of sending their children to private schools. Table12.6 documents a mean school index, ranging from 1 to5, measuring the presence of primary, upper primary, secondary,and higher secondary schools, as well as colleges inrural areas.These values are listed overall, and separately for governmentand private schools. While government schools formthe majority of educational establishments available, statessuch as Punjab, Haryana, and Kerala also seem to have asizeable number of private schools. Ironically, these arealso states with the most access to various levels of governmentschools. With the exception of Uttar Pradesh, allstates where private school presence is strong are stateswhere government schools are widely available. This complementaritybetween private and public systems is a themeto which we shall return when discussing communityprogrammes.
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAUMANEVELO
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAHUMANDEVE
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ToThe 41,554 households who partici
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viiicontentsSOCIAL CHANGES11. Socia
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x tables, figures, and boxes6.1 Enr
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xiitables, figures, and boxes6.1a L
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ForewordIndia has been fortunate as
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PrefaceOn account of the size of it
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acknowledgements xixWhile space doe
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xxii research team and advisorsO.P.
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AbbreviationsASERBPLCHCDPTFPSHCRHDI
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1IntroductionLong years ago we made
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introduction 5the agricultural stag
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introduction 7on income points out,
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2Income, Poverty, and InequalityAs
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income, poverty, and inequality 13t
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income, poverty, and inequality 15A
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income, poverty, and inequality 173
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income, poverty, and inequality 19R
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income, poverty, and inequality 21T
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income, poverty, and inequality 23D
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agriculture 29Figure 3.1Source: IHD
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agriculture 31Figure 3.2bSource: IH
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agriculture 33other religious minor
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agriculture 35Figure 3.5Source: IHD
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agriculture 37Table A.3.1aCultivati
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4EmploymentChapter 2 noted tremendo
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employment 41Box 4.1Education Does
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employment 43in urban areas, animal
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employment 45not surprising that Ta
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employment 47These agricultural and
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employment 49Table A.4.1a Work Part
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employment 51Table A.4.2a: Number o
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employment 53Table A.4.3a: Type of
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employment 55Table A.4.3b: Statewis
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household assets and amenities 61WA
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household assets and amenities 63Bo
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household assets and amenities 65Fi
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household assets and amenities 67an
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household assets and amenities 69Bo
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household assets and amenities 71Ta
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6EducationThe chapters on income (C
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education 77Figure 6.1aSource: IHDS
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education 7995 per cent children ag
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education 81Figure 6.3 Educational
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education 836-14 year old, about 40
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education 85in a lose-lose situatio
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education 87society. Arithmetic ski
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education 89Table A.6.2aDiscontinua
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education 91Table A.6.3a Schooling
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education 93Table A.6.4a Reading, W
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education 95Table A.6.5a Skill Leve
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7Health and Medical CareThroughout
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health and medical care 99Box 7.1Al
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health and medical care 101Figure 7
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health and medical care 103Source:
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health and medical care 107Medical
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health and medical care 109Sixty ni
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health and medical care 111increase
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health and medical care 115Box 7.3T
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health and medical care 117Table A.
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8Child Well-beingThe well-being of
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child well-being 127privileged and
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child well-being 129Source: IHDS 20
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child well-being 131age. Our result
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child well-being 133Table A.8.1a In
Page 160 and 161: child well-being 135Table A.8.2bSta
Page 162 and 163: child well-being 137Table A.8.3bSta
Page 164 and 165: well-being of the older population
Page 174 and 175: gender and family dynamics 149Not s
Page 176 and 177: gender and family dynamics 151withi
Page 178 and 179: gender and family dynamics 153monet
Page 180 and 181: gender and family dynamics 155DISCU
Page 182 and 183: gender and family dynamics 157Table
Page 192: gender and family dynamics 167Table
Page 196 and 197: 11Social Integration and ExclusionT
Page 198 and 199: social integration and exclusion 17
Page 208 and 209: villages in a global world 183mean
Page 212 and 213: villages in a global world 187Table
Page 218: villages in a global world 193Figur
Page 222 and 223: 13Social Safety Nets in IndiaPublic
Page 224 and 225: social safety nets in india 199Anty
Page 226 and 227: social safety nets in india 201THE
Page 228 and 229: social safety nets in india 203HIGH
Page 230 and 231: social safety nets in india 205(Tab
Page 232 and 233: 14ConclusionI was again on a great
Page 234 and 235: conclusion 209enrolment, it also un
Page 236 and 237: conclusion 211availability of work
Page 238 and 239: Appendix I—IHDS: The DesignOne of
Page 240 and 241: appendix i 215Figure AI.2 India Hum
Page 242 and 243: appendix i 217Table AI.1Statewise D
Page 244 and 245: appendix i 219(Table AI.2 contd )Ne
Page 246 and 247: appendix i 221developed for NSS emp
Page 248 and 249: Appendix II—Chapter Organization
Page 250 and 251: appendix ii 225(Table AII.1 contd )
Page 252 and 253: appendix ii 227will often require t
Page 254 and 255: BibliographyAbbas, A.A. and G.J. Wa
Page 256 and 257: ibliography 231Blyn, G. (1966). Agr
Page 258 and 259: ibliography 233Malik, S. (1979). So
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