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7-44 question could be accomplished via international facilities chartered for just such a pur- pose. Such centers (and the institutional arrangements attendant to them) could also serve as forerunners of the full-scale fuel cycle service/energy center concept considered for the recycl e-based options. I 7.5.2. Recycle Options The inherent limitations of the resource base would require the use of recycled material to supplement the LEU cycle if the growth of a nuclear-based electrical generation capacity were to be sustained. Table 7.5-1 compares three recycle options utilizing denatured fuel (Cases E-G) with two reference recycle options utilizing the classical Pu/U cycle (Cases C and D). The two reference cycles differ in that Case D employs FBRs while Case C does not. The denatured cases differ in that Cases E and F are all-thermal systems and Case G employs FBRs in addition to thermal reactors. Case E uses only LWRs as dispersed reactors while Case F uses both LWRs and advanced converters (HWRs, HTGRs, or SSCRs). It has been assumed that, given a strong government mandate and financial support, all the fuel cycles and reactor types that have been considered in this report could be developed by the time they would be needed - by the year 2000 or later. However, the Pu/U cycle is much closer to being commercialized than the Th-based cycles, and, as noted in Chapter 5, the research, development, and demonstration costs for implementing the denatured 233U fuel cycle in LWRs would be between $0.5 and $2 billion higher than the costs for implementing the reference Pu/U cycle in LWRs. If the HWR or HTGR were the reactor of choice, an additional $2 billion would be required for reactor research, development, and demonstration. A system in which reactors consuming Pu and producing 233U (transmuters) are combined with reactors operating on denatured 233U fuel appears to have somewhat better proliferation-resistant characteristics than a system based solely on the Pu/U cycle. The "fresh" 233U fuel is denatured with 238U, and thus some of the proliferation-resistant features of the front end of the LEU cycle would be extended to the recycle mode. is, both chemical and isotopic separation of the fresh fuel would be necessary to obtain weapons-usable material. Additionally, the fresh denatured fuel is contaminated with radioactivity due to the decay daughters of a 232U impurity that is unavoidably produced along with the procedure would be severe. By contrast, weapons material could be obtained from Pu/U or 23%/Th fuel through chemical separation alone, although the 23% obtained would also be radioactive due to the 232U daughters. less so.) That 33U, and the associated complications introduced into the isotope separation (The Pu/U fuel would also be radioactive but much The spent denatured fuel represents a somewhat lower proliferation risk than the spent fuel from other options would. The recovery of a given quantity of Pu bred in the 238U denaturant would require the processing of more material than would be necessary in
7-45 j I Table 7.5-1. Integrated Assessment of Various Nuklear Policy Options for Meeting U.S. Nuclear Power Gr I R,D&D Cost and Time of ReactorlFuel Cycle Cmbi nati on Pro1 iferation Resistance Imp1 ementati on/Comnerci a1 i zation Comnercial Introduction Ability to Meet P Economics LWRs on LEU cycle LEU-LWRs fol lewd by advanced converters on LEU (SEU) cycle or on MEU(235)/Th cycle Once-through LEU-LWRs followed by LWRs with Pu recycle Once-thwugh LEU-LWRs followed by LWRs and FBRs with Pu recycle Dispersed LWRs operating on LEU and denatured 233U fuel with U recycle; energy- center thermal transmuters * (LWRs) with Pu recycle - 0 Dispersed LWRs and advanced 0 converters operating on LEU and denatured 233U fuel with 0 U recycle; energy-center thermal transmuters (LWRs 0 and advanced converters) with Pu recycle 0 Dlspersed LWRs and advanced converters operating on LEU and denatured 233U fuel U recycle; energy-center fast transmuters with Pu 0 Probably best to the extent that non-nuclear weapons states continue to forego national fuel recycle 0 Fresh fuel has isotopic barrier; spent fuel contains radioactive fission products 0 Spent fuel stockpile containing Pu is a risk; requires institutional barriers Similar to above HTGRs on MEU/Th cycle would reduce Pu production by factor of 5 over LEU-LWRs but 0 fresh fuel would have higher 235U content (20%) HWRs on SEU cycle about equal to LWRs on LEU cycle in Pu production Recycled Pu in fresh fuel chemically sepa- 0 0 rable; probably acceptable if Pu can be limited to nuclear weapons states and to secure international fuel service centers Option requires technical and institutional barriers for Pu-fueled reactors (*30%) Spent fuel contains radioactive fission products 0 Increased rfsk over Case C because system tends to become Pu dominated Leads to significant Pu invertories and requires extensive Pu transportation for dispersed reactors Requires technical and institutional barriers 0 0 "Fresh" denatured fuel has isotopic and 0 radioactive barriers; spent fuel contains radioactive fission products Spent denatured fuel contains less Pu than spent LEU fuel (factor of 2.5 less) Requi res technical and institutional barriers to limit Pu to secure energy centers Reduces Pu-fueled reactors by factor of 2 compared with Case C Fresh and spent denatured fuel advantages same as for Case E 0 Requires technical and institutional barriers Use bf HWRs or HTGRs substantially reduces Pu production relative to Cases C and E Pu produced in denatured HWRs and HTGRs may be discarded with minor loss of fuel efficiency Very similar to Case E except that 15 to 50% of reactors may be Pu-fueled FBRs, depending on choice of cycles 0 No-Recycl e Options In wide comnercial use Low cost Concern exists about fuel 0 Gradual improvements introduced from year supply 1980 to year 2000 Emphasis on improved LWRs and U308 resource development needed Little comnercial incentive to Up to $2 billion for advanced converter introduce advanced converter R,D&D Known to be technically Advanced converters introduced in 1990's feasible 0 Concern exists about long-term fuel supply C1 assi cal Reference Recycle Options Acceptable to private sector About $1 billion, mainly for fuel cycle Requires completion of Generic R&D Environmental Impact Statement 0 Introduction in late 1980's on Mixed Oxide Fuel Preferred by private sector ' FBR licensing and comnercial- 1 ization may be difficult Uncertain public acceptance 0 0 FBR R,RltD UP to $10 billion Fuel cycle R,D&D $1.6 to $3 billion FBRs not available before 2000 Fuel cycle somewhat more com- plex than Pu/U cycle, but func: ti onall y equivalent Requires government incentive Same as Case E Advanced converters 1 i kely to to be attractive if FBRs are unavai lab1 e Same as Case E Private sector 1 i kely to accept government mandate Should be structured for maximum thermal -to-fast reactor ratio to Denatured Recycle Options 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Up to $0.5 billion, PWRs and BWRs Fuel cycle R,D&D $1.8 to $3.3 billion Introduction in 1990's Up to $2.5 billion for advanced converters Fuel cycle same as in Case E Introduction in late 1990's Up to $10 billion for FBRs Converter R,D&D as in Cases E and F Fuel cycle $2 to $3.6 billion Introduction after year 2000 Superior ability to growth greater than this study Divorce from mining Somewhat better than superiority of 233U fuel Can fully satisfy as med demand through year 2050 for plenti$l U308 supply; especially true if HWR converters used As good as Case D ab power demand 0 Divorce from U minin for Case D above recycle allow siting flexibility I l 0 Economics closely linked to U308 price 0 Very favorable at current U308 prices Uncertain capital costs cloud near-term interest Advanced converters favored at high U308 prices .( >$lOO/l b) Preferred (>$100/1 b) over Case A at high U308 Economics uncertain because of FBR costs, but probably acceptable Close to Case C Possibly lowest cost for U308 price range of $100-$200/lb, especially for HTGR converter 0 Economics similar to Case D above 0 If FER costs are high, can compen- sate by reducing the fraction of FBRs in the mix and increasing the mining rate
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Interim Assessment of the Denatured
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i L i b I, i L L bi L L Contract No
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1, L L t i Ltr 1 L L V PREFACE AND
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L i Li 1, I b k b id ii t L id b i
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I L bi i; L 7.3.1. Possible Procedu
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i xi I b L ABSTRACT A fuel cycle th
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I b .- i, hd t t CHAPTER 1 INTRODUC
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- - I 4d _- t .- ! Lili L Ld id .-
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L .- k id .- I L: _ - I iclr .- i b
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I, G - -- I id ..- ! I _. I: L _.-
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huJ -- AI I ' b --- I bl --- t L L
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-- t Li - I' b -. c (u I i ai L i i
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L - i' u i Lt L r- L t- b L 2-7 den
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2-9 1. Nuclear power is limited to
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e Isr i L i- b t CHAPTER 3 ISOTOPIC
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232" Fig. 3.0-1. Decay of 232U. ORN
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3-6 3.1. ESTIMATED U CONCENTRATIONS
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3-8 The values in Table 3.1-2 are a
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3-1 0 3.2. RADIOLOGICAL HAZARDS OF
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3-1 2 232u IN RECYCLED HTGR FUEL (p
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3-14 3.2.2 Toxicity of 232Th Given
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
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3.18 There are three approaches whi
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1 i i 3-20 3.3.2. Fabrication and H
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The 3-22 3.3.3 Detection and Assay
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3-24 3.3.4. Potential Circumvention
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3-26 - either large centrifuge pilo
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! 3-28 Table 3.3-3. Enriched Proauc
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3-30 The high alpha activity of ura
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3- 32 Table 3.3-7. Sumry of Results
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3-34 statistical redundancy through
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introduce time, cost and visibility
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3-38 An additional factor relative
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I b t I t L 1; L t ki 4.0. 4.1. CHA
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L L _ _ { i J _- \ I b B u il c _.
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Y m I I I . aro ID0 10.00 4-5 ORNL-
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t .. -. F 4d -- I ' L 0- 122, L _-
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L L; L t -I I ' b L -- t i b -- I;
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_- I -- L i d .-- L 4-1 1 Reference
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_- id L t I , 4d i, L id L 5 bi t h
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-- - . & I I ' h I ' Y 61 L -- I( L
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u -- x i I*i 1- bi 4-1 7 The use of
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la - i , I br -_ t c c L e L 4-1 9
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4-21 Case B" is a modification of C
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c 4-23 L i a L L 4.2. SPECTRAL-SHIF
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4-25 Initial analyses of spectral-s
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h 1' b t c i--; & I- & 1: i f 4-27
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c- i L L e I b 4-29 . safeguards fo
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L t i- bi L L t i 4-31 a significan
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~ kc'l c" -1 r-"! r! r-'i c Table 4
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F-- I iJ L ii - L c c 4-35 Referenc
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c r- L i] L h L __ f; t 4-37 trons
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Table 4.4-1. Fuel Utilization Chara
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L I 1 I Ld I ie i-- 1 t' 4-41 4.4.2
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4-43 Table 4.4-4. PBR Coated Partic
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HEU/Th 0.59 Seed i3 Breed 0.58 HEU/
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L i; 1 I i; i 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
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4-49 Table 4.5-1. Fuel Utilization
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ments. 4-51 The calculations for LM
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 4-53 0 77-1
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Table 4.6-1. Comparison of Fuel Uti
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4-57 _I 10 10' 2 2' CASE NUMBER -.
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4-59 Most of the information availa
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- i b k L L -- I , b -- I .- I Li L
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4-63 on only the preliminary data p
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c e E c
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! 5-4 5.1. REACTOR RESEARCH AND DEV
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5-6 As has been pointed out above,
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5-8 the LMFBR on its reference cycl
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5-10 The fuel performance program u
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. 5.1.2. Government Research and De
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5-1 4 The first aspect of large pla
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5-1 6 and should also address metho
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I DATA BASE DEMu)pMENT DEMO DESIGN
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j ~ 5-20 The R,D&D costs are highes
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5-22 In the case of metal-clad oxid
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5-24 5.2.2. Research, Development,
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5-26 program, including hot testing
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c c
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6-4 persed areas ensured - a fact w
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6-6 6.1.2. Reactor Options The reac
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Reactor/Cycl ea LWR-U5(LE)/U-S LUR-
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6-10 6.1.3. Nuclear Policy Options,
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Table 6.1-4. Nuclear Policy Options
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SWU SWU 6-14 UZJS USILEINS WYI U5IL
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6-16 n nM MEDL nows.1 Option 4: In
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6-18 HM HEDL7OOl.70.3 Option 6: In
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SRCIFIED CONSTRUCTION LlMllLD INTRO
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50- 40 6-22 c Y \ VL - :-: F 30- -
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6-24 The potential nuclear contribu
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%- f $400 J 2 s 2, 1 THE LWR FOLLOW
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141.6 ST - U308 4 7.2 lo3 swu ENRIC
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6-30 reactor. Since this increase i
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‘9. ,1 ST ‘3O8 6-32 12 Kg HM I
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6-34 1HE LWR WITH FISSILE UUNIUM PC
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THE LWR WITH PURONIUM MlNUllUTlON A
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6-38 be located in energy centers a
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6-40 installed capacity must be han
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lm, 1 I I I I mf RR WITH UGHT rwrmi
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Page 208 and 209: 6-48 Table 6.3-2. Summary of Result
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Page 261 and 262: t a APPENDICES
Page 263 and 264: A-3 Appendix A. ISOTOPE SEPARATION
Page 265 and 266: I] 1- $i ill 8 LI b' The Gas Centri
Page 267 and 268: id A- 7 The Component Preparation L
Page 269 and 270: i ?L 1- U t L fl bi L c u La -- ti
Page 271 and 272: p; ‘U i-- L ,c c Japan A-1 1 Tabl
Page 273 and 274: 13 A-13 L" efficient of the units d
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Page 277 and 278: u A-1 Aerodynamic Methods 7 Both th
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Page 281 and 282: la t L I I, lj ir 1 Li c I L L' B-1
Page 283 and 284: i; 1 t u 1 1 B-3 Table 8.5. Reactor
Page 285 and 286: Table 6-7. Marginal Costs of U308 a
Page 287 and 288: LJ L L1 a .E 4' P Y W 5 18 2 16 : 0
Page 289 and 290: Appendix C. DETAILED RESULTS FROM E
Page 291 and 292: 1 i; Li b L lkd t L L I hd I ' L; i
Page 293 and 294: L c-5 The introduction of the class
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Page 301 and 302: _- I ii I _ _ I L I td C i b L i, L
Page 303 and 304: Qulatiw klur W i t y hilt (*I thrmg
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L c c b - i ii L r D-1 Appendix D.
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L L L L [i i” Table D -2. Maximum
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Fig. D-2 (cont.) 25W I I I I I (I)
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[i energy center. It can be seen fr
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L L i il L t W 0-9 Table D-4. Summa
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-- Lid c i' .- .b) i Internal Distr
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It e L L L t u I' f ' ki Federal Ag
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u 1' 1" Outside Organizations (cont
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