Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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against Spain which subsequently affected maritime trade of other Christian powers and became a serious annoyance for them. More than that, the Moriscos altered irreversibly the composition of Algerian corsairing crews, which so far remained exclusively Turkish. Thousands European renegades also joined the Algerian navy because it offered them better economic opportunities but also because many vowed hatred for their native Europe. 8 This new composition of the Algerian navy was going to add further elements of resentment and “hatred that did not always distinguish between Protestant and Catholic.” 9 This amalgam was going to pit Algiers against other European powers outside the allies of the Holy Roman Empire—like France, Britain, the Nordic Countries, and later the United States—that traditionally were not its enemies, hence the need to conclude peace treaties with them. Finally, Moriscos and renegades brought unexpected economic opportunities and new skills that turned the Algerian navy to a dreadful strike force. While Moriscos brought their artisan and entrepreneurial commercial skills, renegades revolutionized it. The Moriscos who settled at Algiers flourished as a middle class standing behind the armament of ships and the Nordic renegades introduced a different type of seafaring technology called the broadsides. 10 The large galleys, propelled by hundreds of oarsmen, gave way to new sailing battleships: light, speedy, and propelled by sail, the broadsides could cruise longer; therefore, they could reach distant places. Iceland and 8 Cordingly, Pirates, p. 88. 9 Nabil Matar, “English Accounts of Captivity in North Africa and the Middle East: 1577-1625,” Renaissance Quarterly, 54: 2 (Summer 2001), p. 561. 10 Clissold, “Christian Renegades,” pp. 512-13. 112
Ireland, for example, became within sailing reach. The Algerian fleet could then inflict serious blows to its Christian enemies wherever and whenever it could meet them; hence the ‘terror’ of the Algerian corsair which gripped Europe. 11 These new developments interacted in such a way that no merchant ships could anymore sail in the Mediterranean without protection against corsairs’ attacks—Muslim and Christian alike. Only treaties of peace could secure free maritime passage for all antagonists, be they Muslim or Christian. 1. 2. Foundations of Corsairing Diplomacy As indicated earlier, the Sublime Porte concluded a number of treaties, called also capitulations, with the European countries that granted them large legal and trading privileges. 12 By granting extraterritorial rights to foreigners residing in the Ottoman Empire, the capitulations were originally meant to encourage trade, but progressively the Europeans used them to infiltrate the Ottoman Empire. Algiers disapproved of Constantinople’s foreign policy which they considered had conceded too many privileges to foreigners. This was the case of the capitulations of 1536 with France which granted trading posts to France, particularly Bastion of France near Annaba. 13 Ultimately, the French used the Bastion as a spearhead for extending their influence in the 11 Again, this is one of those terror legends that can be found in Delmasso, “La peur des corsaires barbaresques,” pp. 51-7. 12 In international law, capitulations—to be distinguished from the military term ‘capitulation,’ meaning surrender—were treaties under which foreigners residing in the Ottoman Empire, including its provinces, were granted extraterritorial rights; i.e.: the European countries were permitted to exercise jurisdiction over their own nationals within boundaries of the Ottoman Empire. P. H. Collin, Dictionary of Government and Politics (Middlesex, GB: Peter Collin Publishing, Ltd, 1988), p. 34. 13 Jean Bérenger, “La politique française en méditerranée au XVIe siècle & l’alliance ottomane,” in Michel Vergé-Franceschi and Antoine-Marie Graziani, eds., La guerre de course en Méditerranée (1515-1830) (Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris IV-Sorbonne, 2000), pp. 12-13. 113
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
Page 73 and 74: Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
Page 75 and 76: Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
Page 77 and 78: chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
Page 79 and 80: Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
Page 81 and 82: established perceptions, goes furth
Page 83 and 84: (barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
Page 85 and 86: meaning a person speaking beneath h
Page 87 and 88: Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
Page 89 and 90: asis for a variety of programs and
Page 91 and 92: freedom of navigation. Slavery was
Page 93 and 94: however, the pace of capture and en
Page 95 and 96: slaves. 71 However, in the absence
Page 97 and 98: 2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
Page 99 and 100: confronts when looking into diploma
Page 101 and 102: corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
Page 103 and 104: shipping, they operated like pirate
Page 105 and 106: “commission of war from some fore
Page 107 and 108: may be seen as “a cost-efficient
Page 109 and 110: shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
Page 111 and 112: This confusion in legal interpretat
Page 113 and 114: fanatics who had already sworn enmi
Page 115 and 116: treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
Page 117 and 118: harm” or nothing more than a “p
Page 119 and 120: were sometimes harsh—and in that
Page 121 and 122: these treaties survived for more th
Page 123: Other developments affected Algiers
Page 127 and 128: privileges, was going to recur to t
Page 129 and 130: at Algiers. Later, the government a
Page 131 and 132: utter. For this reason, visits of A
Page 133 and 134: council of prizes, were sold by auc
Page 135 and 136: elations between Algiers and wester
Page 137 and 138: 2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
Page 139 and 140: destruction of the Algerian fleet w
Page 141 and 142: compensation for the occupation of
Page 143 and 144: small in numbers to settle conquere
Page 145 and 146: the return of Algerian captives ens
Page 147 and 148: Christians’ enslavement at a time
Page 149 and 150: 1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
Page 151 and 152: Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
Page 153 and 154: Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
Page 155 and 156: 3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
Page 157 and 158: privateering, was not officially ab
Page 159 and 160: precisely the best landing place fo
Page 161 and 162: The renegades largely contributed t
Page 163 and 164: At about the same period, i.e.: beg
Page 165 and 166: Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
Page 167 and 168: principles of free access to ports
Page 169 and 170: Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 171 and 172: y religious antagonism and struggle
Page 173 and 174: also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430:
Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432:
Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434:
Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436:
_____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438:
_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442:
MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444:
Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446:
Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450:
Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452:
Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456:
intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458:
Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
Page 461 and 462:
Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
Page 487 and 488:
Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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