Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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countries. 131 The latter, when they had commissioned Lamb to negotiate with Algiers, instructed him “to use his own discretion” in carrying negotiations: “Where alterations which, in your opinion, shall not be of great importance, shall be urged by the other party, you are at liberty to agree to them.” 132 That was precisely what Lamb did. During the first Algerian-American negotiations that took place in April 1786, an agreement was reached with the Dey for the redemption of captives. Nevertheless, after the ministers had allowed Lamb some latitude in negotiations, they rejected that agreement arguing that Lamb had gone beyond his prerogatives. Worse, they did not even think it worth to give the Dey official notification about it—after all it was them who initiated negotiations. That switch in position turned out to be a thorny problem in future Algerian-American relations. Hence, what originally had started as a measure to overcome problems of communications was going to lead to lasting misunderstandings between Algiers and the United States. As a consequence, never again did the Deys trust American envoys; at best, they had always remained suspicious about them. 133 131 SJ, 3:536, March 11, 1785; USDC, 1:656, 659, From Thomas Jefferson to John Jay, October 11, 1785. 132 USDC, 1:658, From Thomas Jefferson to John Jay, Commissions to Thomas Barclay and John Lamb, October 11, 1785. 133 Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, p. 57. 201
Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the Thirteen Colonies in much the same way as did the land; and the ‘frontier’ may be seen as both terrestrial and oceanic. It was that dimension which shaped American expansionism first toward the wilderness of the American West, then at a later stage, towards the transoceanic Orient. While forcibly penetrating the West in the name of Manifest Destiny, the Americans moved to force the door of Mediterranean trade open in the name of free navigation and free markets. In both cases, ready-made justifications were at hand: on the one hand, the native Americans were no more than heathens and savages who did not deserve to enjoy the abundant natural resources of the West and on the other, the ‘pirates’ of the ‘Barbary Coast’ were a hindrance to America’s economic well-being. Therefore, for the American bullish settlers and trans-Atlantic merchants alike, both had to disappear so that room would be made for the white, civilized, and Christian element and his growing insatiable interests. From Franklin who declared enmity to Algiers while the United States was still an embryo, passing by Adams who explicitly aggressed Islam and Jefferson who started devising plans for attacking Algiers when the United States was still in layers, to Stephen Decatur who midway, with the growth of the first American tooth, bit Algiers, and ending by William Shaler who barely as soon as the United States could stand on its feet recommended colonization, Algiers definitely was going to have hard times with that new race of rising jingos and Rambos. But before all that, the Americans had first to secure an 202
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
Page 163 and 164: At about the same period, i.e.: beg
Page 165 and 166: Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
Page 167 and 168: principles of free access to ports
Page 169 and 170: Part Two Algiers in early American
Page 171 and 172: y religious antagonism and struggle
Page 173 and 174: also did it with the view of making
Page 175 and 176: Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
Page 177 and 178: legally, they did not hesitate to c
Page 179 and 180: the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
Page 181 and 182: 1622. England’s relations with Al
Page 183 and 184: adventurers who were roaming in the
Page 185 and 186: “would, it is more than probable,
Page 187 and 188: was taken by the utmost seriousness
Page 189 and 190: “could still seek their fortunes
Page 191 and 192: But Owing to hostilities triggered
Page 193 and 194: “jingoistic and melioristic” Am
Page 195 and 196: Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
Page 197 and 198: American commissioner who throughou
Page 199 and 200: void because they emanated from a n
Page 201 and 202: is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
Page 203 and 204: Algiers particularly as a “pettif
Page 205 and 206: independence, the Continental Congr
Page 207 and 208: Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
Page 209 and 210: his letter book more than did the D
Page 211 and 212: Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
Page 213: ulers of Algiers to doubt American
Page 217 and 218: CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
Page 219 and 220: the Americans, the Europeans were k
Page 221 and 222: diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
Page 223 and 224: trade against the North African sta
Page 225 and 226: and neutrality of shipping—contin
Page 227 and 228: Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
Page 229 and 230: markets and consequently economic p
Page 231 and 232: American diplomatic relations becau
Page 233 and 234: further French intervention on thei
Page 235 and 236: earlier sniveling fears and accusat
Page 237 and 238: Dutch side what had already been de
Page 239 and 240: the part of that state or its subje
Page 241 and 242: If the British government suffered
Page 243 and 244: esources, and so contemptible, that
Page 245 and 246: of the existing ‘balance of power
Page 247 and 248: encouraged the piratical states to
Page 249 and 250: Britain and France and makes them r
Page 251 and 252: Then, it was only when the American
Page 253 and 254: every ten years according to custom
Page 255 and 256: according to which the draft treati
Page 257 and 258: American agents, however, without i
Page 259 and 260: American vessels, Britain hoped to
Page 261 and 262: Passports seemed not to bother the
Page 263 and 264: Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430:
Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432:
Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434:
Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436:
_____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438:
_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442:
MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444:
Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446:
Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450:
Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452:
Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458:
Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
Page 461 and 462:
Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
Page 479 and 480:
Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
Page 487 and 488:
Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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