Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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a one Bassara contacted the American representation at Alicante and introduced himself as sole accredited negotiator for the Dey of Algiers. According to him, the Dey “did not believe the government of the United States had ever appointed two commissioners to treat with him, who had died after their appointment;” and therefore, he would not accept any another agent except him. 22 As no other source confirms or belies the information, one may suppose that there might have been some truth in it because given the untrustworthy conduct of the American government before and then, the Dey ended by not believing the Americans. Therefore, he might have decided to take negotiations single-handedly without waiting for American emissaries. One may not discard the possibility that Bassara might have acted without the knowledge of the Dey as a result of Jewry intrigues. Bassara (or Bouchara) was a Jew broker whose financial house Bassara & Co had been used by the American government for some time and he was at cutthroat competition with the Bacris, the accredited brokers of the Deys of Algiers. 23 As P. E. Skjoldebrand explained, Bassara was also Sweden’s broker but the Bacris “secretly indisposed” the Dey towards peace with the Swedes and caused much trouble—going up to a declaration of war; and only until they were obliged to deal with the Bacris could they restore good relations with Algiers. He therefore recommended that the Americans should switch to the Bacris. 24 An 22 ASP/FA, 1:327, Letter from D. Humphreys to the Secretary of State, December 25, 1793. 23 Schuyler, American Diplomacy, P. 213; Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, p. 82. 24 Ibid., 1:415, Brother of the Swedish Consul to D. Humphreys, Esq. Nov. 13, 1793. O’Brien was also of the same view, ASP/FA, 1:419, Captain O’Brien to Colonel Humphreys, November 16, 1793. Note: O’Bryen changed the spelling of his name to O’Brien. 301
O’Brien letter supported the Swedish view and reported also that the Dey had declined to receive Humphreys after Bassara made an application for it. According to O’Brien, the Dey answered him “very abruptly that he would not make the peace with America” and that “when he wanted the Americans for nearly two years to make the peace they would not give him an answer, which was treating him and his people with indifference.” 25 Therefore, one is inclined to say that the Dey could not have charged Bassara with whatsoever after he rejected his demand for receiving Humphreys. It is not improbable that the Bacris were behind that unfriendly position of the Dey and Bassara knew it; so he might have decided to short-circuit his rivals by intervening directly with his clients the Americans, hence Skjoldebrand’s above mentioned allegation. Considering how complications smoothed suddenly two years later after the Swedes transferred American business from Bassara to Bacri, one may deduce that the Dey’s refusal to receive the American envoy—even if the latter had already changed his mind about the visit and departed from Alicante—was but one of those countless intrigues of the Jews. Dey Hassan Pasha had always been favorable to a peace treaty with the United States and he had waited too long for that. 26 1. 2. The Algiers-Portugal Truce, 1793 The Jews, however, were not the only plotters to battle for influence and privileges at Algiers; the most notorious among them remained the British. 25 ASP/FA, 1:416, Captain O’Brien to D, Humphreys, Esq, November, 12, 1793. 26 Ibid., 1:418, Captain O’Brien to the President of United States, November 5, 1793. 302
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
Page 263 and 264: Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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Page 271 and 272: edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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Page 275 and 276: the states warning against travel t
Page 277 and 278: d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
Page 279 and 280: 2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
Page 281 and 282: American turned up at his court he
Page 283 and 284: His unguarded expressions, his hint
Page 285 and 286: Lamb’s first option was not heele
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Page 289 and 290: But, he carried on, “when they ta
Page 291 and 292: Finally, comparing the total cost o
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Page 295 and 296: New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
Page 297 and 298: Dey. That was noted by the American
Page 299 and 300: if there is a probability of a war,
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Page 305 and 306: ecomes even more amazing when in th
Page 307 and 308: given American predilection for agg
Page 309 and 310: Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
Page 311 and 312: edemption of the remaining captives
Page 313: the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
Page 317 and 318: 1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Page 321 and 322: Affairs, with respect to the truce.
Page 323 and 324: personally written to him.” 47 Th
Page 325 and 326: 1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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Page 329 and 330: ut diplomatically they were conside
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Page 333 and 334: passport issued by the United State
Page 335 and 336: known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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Page 339 and 340: April 3, the Dey announced that, as
Page 341 and 342: that money for redeeming American p
Page 343 and 344: called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
Page 345 and 346: Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
Page 347 and 348: concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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Page 351 and 352: egency, or from the misconduct of o
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Page 355 and 356: Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
Page 357 and 358: But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360: As annual payments in naval materia
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Page 363 and 364: 2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
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_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
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Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
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Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
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_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
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Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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