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expressed his friendship for Americans, Eaton sarcastically interjected that a Cherokee chief would do the same “for a bottle of rum and a rifle.” 16 When Eaton stopped-over at Algiers in February 1799, the new Dey Mustafa Pasha (r. 1798-1805) had been ruling for nearly one year then and American state papers do not even refer to him at that early period. Yet, Eaton, armed with his frontier experience and prejudice, made “a very uncomplimentary description” of the Dey that has since been repeated in all American specialized writings. 17 The description in fact was a stereotyped approach to North African culture which inspired much of the policies that were undertaken by the American government afterwards. In his report to the Secretary of State, Eaton literally described El-Djenina, the Dey’s palace, as a ‘cave’ or ‘den’ of a ‘beast’ and portrayed the Dey as “a huge, shaggy beast, sitting on his rump” who, at the sight of American consuls, “reached out his fore paw as if to receive something to eat.” Eaton proceeded to say that after a while, “the animal seemed … to be in a harmless mode; he grinned several times, but made very little noise.” For Eaton, his meeting with the Dey was a violation of “the second command of God” and an offence to “common decency.” 18 16 Sedgwick, “William Eaton, a Sanguine Man,” p. 109; Allison, The Crescent Obscured, p. 163. 17 Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, p. 126. 18 Eaton wrote describing his presentation to Dey Mustafa Pasha: “… we took off our shoes, and entering the cave (for so it seemed), we were shown to a huge, shaggy beast, sitting on his rump upon a low bench, covered with a cushion of embroidered velvet, with his hind legs gathered up like a tailor or a bear. On our approach to him he reached out his fore paw as if to receive something to eat. Our guide exclaimed, “Kiss the Dey’s hand!” The consul-general bowed very elegantly and kissed it, and we followed his example in succession. The animal seemed at that moment to be in a harmless mode; he grinned several times, but made very little noise. Having performed this ceremony, and standing a few moments in silent agony, we had leave to take our shoes and other property, and leave the den, without any other injury than the humility of being obliged, in this involuntary manner, to violate the second 341
Eaton’s vehemence rose even more when he considered that “this elevated brute has seven kings of Europe, two republics, and a continent [meaning the United States] tributary to him, when his whole naval force is not equal to two line-of-battle ships.” 19 For him, that was inconceivable at a time the United States had the capacity to pay tribute in the form of ‘cannon balls’ instead of ‘money bags’. 20 After a reconnaissance tour during which he contemptuously noted details of fortifications and soldiery at Algiers, he reported to the Secretary of State advocating speedy military action against Algiers and even detailed an offensive plan: All the batteries of Algiers are in a ruined condition, garrisoned by undisciplined, half starved Turks [who] could be forced on board our vessels before the least succor could be given…. Yet to the shame of humanity they dictate terms to powerful nations!!! 21 To the new secretary of state John Marshall (1800-1801) he wrote again protesting the payment of tribute to the ‘Barbary States’: Genius of My Country! How art thou prostrate! Hast thou not yet one son whose soul revolts, whose nerves convulse, blood vessels burst, and heart indignant swells at thoughts of such debasement. 22 Eaton’s indignation and distaste reflected the views of many of his contemporaries regarding payment of tribute to Algiers. 23 Considering that the command of God and offend common decency.” NDBW, 1:301, Letter to the Secretary of State, February 15, 1799. 19 NDBW, 1:301, Letter to the Secretary of State, February 15, 1799. 20 Michael Kitzen, “Money Bags or Cannon Balls: The Origins of the Tripolitan War, 1795-1801,” Journal of the Early Republic, 16: 4 (Winter 1996), pp. 614, 620; Prentiss, Life of William Eaton, pp. 85, 106. 21 NDBW, 1:317, Letter to the Secretary of State, Mar. 30, 1799. 22 Ibid., I: 397-98, Eaton to Marshall, Nov. 11, 1800. 23 Cathcart and O’Brien expressed similar views in their letters and dispatches. Kitzen, “Money Bags or Cannon Balls,” pp. 601, 620, fn 44. 342
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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Page 305 and 306: ecomes even more amazing when in th
Page 307 and 308: given American predilection for agg
Page 309 and 310: Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
Page 311 and 312: edemption of the remaining captives
Page 313 and 314: the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
Page 315 and 316: O’Brien letter supported the Swed
Page 317 and 318: 1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Page 321 and 322: Affairs, with respect to the truce.
Page 323 and 324: personally written to him.” 47 Th
Page 325 and 326: 1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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Page 329 and 330: ut diplomatically they were conside
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Page 333 and 334: passport issued by the United State
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Page 339 and 340: April 3, the Dey announced that, as
Page 341 and 342: that money for redeeming American p
Page 343 and 344: called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
Page 345 and 346: Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
Page 347 and 348: concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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Page 351 and 352: egency, or from the misconduct of o
Page 353: specifying that the United States h
Page 357 and 358: But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360: As annual payments in naval materia
Page 361 and 362: I explained to you, sir, that it wa
Page 363 and 364: 2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
Page 365 and 366: Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Page 369 and 370: dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
Page 371 and 372: treaty was sacred and that was agre
Page 373 and 374: those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
Page 375 and 376: the war with France had just ended,
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Page 379 and 380: On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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Page 383 and 384: Monroe had played a prominent role
Page 385 and 386: armada and that of 1784 met the sam
Page 387 and 388: dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
Page 389 and 390: the United States “must hold the
Page 391 and 392: For sure, there were a number of al
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Page 395 and 396: Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 397 and 398: Table 10: The United States and Alg
Page 399 and 400: Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
Page 401 and 402: The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404: Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
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_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
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Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
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Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
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_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
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Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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