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we will not furnish them naval stores, because we think it not right to furnish them means which we know they will employ to do wrong, and because there might be no economy in it, as to ourselves in the end, as it would increase the expense of that coercion which we may in future be obliged to practice towards them. The only question then is, what sum of money will be agreed to pay them annually for peace? 15 One may understand here that a peace treaty was seen as merely a transitory phase before some naval action could be undertaken against Algiers. Jones who was then at Paris claiming prize money dating back to the piracies he committed during the war of independence, however, died before he could get his commission. 16 Barclay, who succeeded him, also died shortly after he was commissioned and before he could set out for Algiers. A Jefferson determined to finish with Algiers either by force or by a negotiated treaty issued instructions to David Humphreys, U.S. minister to Portugal, to take negotiations at hand. The instructions were essentially the same as those forwarded previously. One change relative to the payments in naval stores, however, was made. Humphreys was informed that if Algiers declined to make a treaty on any other conditions than the delivery of such material, he might agree to that and “reserve the right to make the subsequent annual payments in money.” 17 Humphreys reached Alicante, Spain on his way to Algiers but he never reached it; late in 1793, he sent his letter of credence to 15 SPPD, 10:264. Providing Algiers with naval stores was assimilated to supplying Afghan mujahidin with ground-to-air missiles. Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, p. 70. 16 For that chapter of Jones’ life and his desperate efforts to pass piracy for privateering with the French government see Reginald de Koven, The Life and Letters of John Paul Jones, vol. 2 (London: T. Werner Laurie, Ltd, 1913), pp. 242-69. 17 SPPD, 10:272, To Colonel David Humphreys, March 21, 1793. 299
the Swedish consul at Algiers and returned to Lisbon. 18 By then, a new crisis between Algiers and the United States started unfolding. Once again, the Americans stopped a peace process they had initiated abruptly after it had been brought informally to the knowledge of the Dey by the American prisoners, particularly O’Brien who became a sort of a de facto consul and kept feeding the American government with intelligence after 1786—mostly general condition of the prisoners, armament and movement of corsairs, and political advise and forecast. Meanwhile, on presentation of his letter of credence to the Dey by the Swedes, the Dey probably angered by Americans’ irresponsible attitudes declined to receive him. 19 According to Per Erik Skjoldebrand, brother of the Swedish consul, the Dey declared that “he would not make peace with the Americans at any price whatever” and that “there had been a time when he was well disposed to support the engagements at half price, made by his predecessor.” 20 The Dey explained that conditions were such that “his interest does not permit him to accept your offers even were you to lavish millions upon him.” 21 It is also probable that Dey Hassan Pasha on his side, although angered by the attitude of Americans, attempted to re-activate negotiations with the United States. According to a report from Humphreys to the Secretary of State 18 The Swedish consul declined representing the Americans formally least he would be in trouble with the Court of his country; but he referred the task to his brother Per Erik Skjoldebrand who was at Algiers in no official capacity. ASP/FA, 1:414, The Swedish Consul to D. Humphreys, Esq. Nov. 13, 1793. 19 In two reports to the Secretary of State Humphreys interpreted it a categorical “refusal of the Dey to grant a passport.” ASP/FA, 1:413, D. Humphreys, Esq. to the Secretary of State, November 19, 1793 and from the same to the same, November 23, 1793. 20 ASP/FA, 1:414, Brother of the Swedish Consul to D. Humphreys, Esq. Nov. 13, 1793. 21 Ibid. 300
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
Page 261 and 262: Passports seemed not to bother the
Page 263 and 264: Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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Page 271 and 272: edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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Page 275 and 276: the states warning against travel t
Page 277 and 278: d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
Page 279 and 280: 2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
Page 281 and 282: American turned up at his court he
Page 283 and 284: His unguarded expressions, his hint
Page 285 and 286: Lamb’s first option was not heele
Page 287 and 288: extermination of that “race of se
Page 289 and 290: But, he carried on, “when they ta
Page 291 and 292: Finally, comparing the total cost o
Page 293 and 294: conclusion of a peace treaty with A
Page 295 and 296: New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
Page 297 and 298: Dey. That was noted by the American
Page 299 and 300: if there is a probability of a war,
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Page 305 and 306: ecomes even more amazing when in th
Page 307 and 308: given American predilection for agg
Page 309 and 310: Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
Page 311: edemption of the remaining captives
Page 315 and 316: O’Brien letter supported the Swed
Page 317 and 318: 1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
Page 319 and 320: Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
Page 321 and 322: Affairs, with respect to the truce.
Page 323 and 324: personally written to him.” 47 Th
Page 325 and 326: 1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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Page 329 and 330: ut diplomatically they were conside
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Page 333 and 334: passport issued by the United State
Page 335 and 336: known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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Page 339 and 340: April 3, the Dey announced that, as
Page 341 and 342: that money for redeeming American p
Page 343 and 344: called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
Page 345 and 346: Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
Page 347 and 348: concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
Page 349 and 350: the source of much dissatisfaction
Page 351 and 352: egency, or from the misconduct of o
Page 353 and 354: specifying that the United States h
Page 355 and 356: Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
Page 357 and 358: But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360: As annual payments in naval materia
Page 361 and 362: I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
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statutes and treaties. In this capa
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distinction between corsairing and
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altered the geopolitical concerns o
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
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_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
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Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
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Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
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_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
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Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
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Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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