Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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that no more shall enter any such merchant ship or vessel, without express leave from the commander thereof, but the two sitters alone ; and that upon producing a pass under the hand and seal of the Lord High Admiralty? England and Ireland, or of the Lord High Admiral of Scotland, for the said kingdoms respectively, or under the hands and seals of the commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Admiral of any of the said kingdoms, that the said boat shall presently depart, and the merchant ship or vessel shall proceed freely on her voyage, and that although, for the space of fifteen months next ensuing after the conclusion of this peace, the said commander of the merchant ship or vessel produce no such pass, yet if the major part of the seamen of the said ship or vessel be subjects of the said King of Great Britain, the said boat shall immediately depart, and the said merchant ship, or vessel, shall freely proceed on her voyage; but that after the said fifteen months, all merchants’ ships, or vessels, of His said Majesty’s subjects shall be obliged to produce such a pass as aforesaid. And any of the ships of war, or other vessels, of His said Majesty, meeting with any ships, or other vessels, of Algiers, if the commander of any such Algier ship, or vessel, shall produce a pass firmed by the chief governors of Algiers, and a certificate from the English Consul living there, or if they have no such pass, or certificate, yet if, for the space of fifteen months next ensuing the conclusion of this peace, the major part of the ship’s company be Turks, Moors, or slaves belonging to Algiers, then the said Algier ship, or vessel, shall proceed freely; but that, after the said fifteen months, all Algiers ships, or vessels, shall be obliged to produce such a pass and certificate as aforesaid. V. That no commander, or other person, of any ship, or vessel, of Algiers, shall take out of any ship, or vessel, of His said Majesty’s subjects, any person or persons whatsoever, to carry them any where to be examined, or upon any other pretence; nor shall they use any torture, or violence, to any person of what nation or quality soever, being on board any ship, or vessel of His Majesty’s subjects, upon any pretence whatsoever. VI. That no shipwreck belonging to the said King of Great Britain, or to any of His Majesty’s subjects, upon any part of the coast belonging to Algiers, shall be made or become prize, and that neither the goods thereof shall be seized, nor the men made slaves; but that all the subjects of Algiers shall do their best endeavours to save the said men and their goods. VII. That no ship, nor any other vessel of Algiers, shall have permission to be delivered up, or go to Sally, or any place in enmity with the said King of Great Britain, to be made use of as corsairs, or sea-rovers, against His said Majesty’s subjects. VIII. That none of the ships, or other smaller vessels of Algiers, shall remain cruising near or in sight of His Majesty’s city and garrison of Tangier, or of any 445
other of His Majesty’s roads, havens or ports, towns and places, nor any ways disturb the peace and commerce of the same. IX. That if any ship, or vessel, of Tunis, Tripoli, or Sally, or of any other place, bring any ships, vessels, men or goods belonging- to any of His said Majesty’s subjects, to Algiers, or to any port or place in that kingdom, the governors there shall not permit them to be sold within the territories of Algiers. X. That if any of the ships of war of the said King of Great Britain do come to Algiers, or to any other port or place of that kingdom, with any prize, they may freely sell it, or otherwise dispose of it at their own pleasure, without being molested by any: and that His Majesty’s said ships of war shall not be obliged to pay customs in any sort; and that if they shall want provisions, victuals, or any other things, they may freely buy them at the rates in the market. XI. That when any of His said Majesty’s ships of war shall appear before Algiers, upon notice thereof given by the English Consul, or by the commander of the said ships, to the chief governors of Algiers, public proclamation shall be immediately made to secure the Christian captives ; and if, after that, any Christians whatsoever make their escape on board any of the said ships of war, they shall not be required back again, nor shall the said consul or commander, or any other His Majesty’s subjects, be obliged to pay any thing for the said Christians…. Source: Hertslet, Complete Collection of the Treaties and Conventions, 1:58- 65. 446
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
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the United States “must hold the
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For sure, there were a number of al
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demonstration of American skill and
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Conclusion Although Algiers and the
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Table 10: The United States and Alg
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Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
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The conservative observers, however
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Appraisal of the long history of Al
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corsairing and its related activiti
Page 407 and 408: statutes and treaties. In this capa
Page 409 and 410: distinction between corsairing and
Page 411 and 412: altered the geopolitical concerns o
Page 413 and 414: and for over than two hundred years
Page 415 and 416: the weak finances of the Confederat
Page 417 and 418: use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
Page 419 and 420: BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422: 2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424: 3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426: Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428: Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430: Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432: Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434: Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436: _____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438: _____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440: Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442: MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444: Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446: Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448: _____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450: Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452: Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454: Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456: intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457: Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
Page 461 and 462: Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
Page 463 and 464: not assist Great Britain in such wa
Page 465 and 466: Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
Page 467 and 468: those people is ineffectual, I urge
Page 469 and 470: consequently at the mercy of foreig
Page 471 and 472: and because all those powers are re
Page 473 and 474: Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
Page 475 and 476: Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
Page 477 and 478: having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
Page 479 and 480: Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
Page 481 and 482: Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
Page 483 and 484: Silsbee, of that place, while on a
Page 485 and 486: In coming before the town it is usu
Page 487 and 488: Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
Page 489 and 490: furnished at the market price, and
Page 491 and 492: of the United States, and the citiz
Page 493 and 494: said Admiral, your servant, all tha
Page 495 and 496: amicable sentiments towards the Uni
Page 497 and 498: understanding between them and the
Page 499 and 500: était d’aussi bonne prise que le
Page 501 and 502: GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
Page 503 and 504: Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
Page 506: ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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