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Constantinople, the new American consul and the captain of the ship in question “immediately complied with the request.” 46 But one man seemed not to be ready to forget what he considered as national humiliation; he was James Madison. Seven months later after the incident, and shortly after becoming Secretary of State, Madison wrote O’Brien: The sending to Constantinople the national ship of war, the George Washington, by force, under the Algerine flag, and for such a purpose, has deeply affected the sensibility, not only of the President, but of the people of the United States. Whatever temporary effects it may have had favorable to our interests, the indignity is of so serious a nature that it is not impossible that it may be seemed necessary, on a fit occasion, to revive the subject. 47 More, Madison, on behalf of Jefferson, ordered O’Brien not to take any action that might jeopardize future reprisal of the American government, which in fact explains why the Americans acquiesced to the Dey’s demand on a similar occasion in 1809. Madison had already settled to the idea of avenging American national honor: Viewing in this light, the President Wishes that nothing may be said or done by you that unnecessarily preclude the competent authority from Animadverting on that transaction in any way that a vindication of the national honor may be thought to prescribe. The Secretary of State, who later became the president of the United States, would meet a ‘fit occasion’ for ‘punishing’ Algiers in what seemed to be a ‘forced’ departure of the American consul from Algiers in 1812. By then, he would transform the already existing tensions to gunboat diplomacy. 46 Irwin, Diplomatic Relations, p. 171. 47 ASP/FA, 2:348, Secretary of State to O’Brien, May 20, 1801. 349
2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic Relations: From Crises to Gunboats The George Washington episode may be considered as a minor incident in relations between Algiers and the United States. Tribute, however, remained the thorniest issue which complicated those relations and precipitated the two countries into conflict. As of early 1801, the United States was indebted to Algiers with two and a half years in arrearages. 48 It was not until March 1802 that president Thomas Jefferson could communicate to Congress that the sums owed to the “government of Algiers are now fully paid up”—or almost. 49 O’Brien could write with relief to the American consul at Gibraltar: “we have finally paid all our debt to the regency on the annuities. We are square for six years, from the 5 th September, 1795, to the 5 th September, 1801.” 50 So, it took the United States that long time, despite requirements of the treaty of 1795, to deliver stores. Then again, despite those same requirements which specified payment of annual tribute in maritime stores, the United States opted for different forms of payment. In 1799, for example, O’Brien not only converted the value of the two frigates late Hassan Pasha had requested to tribute payments but also inflated their value. 51 Realizing that the new Dey Mustafa and other Algerine officials were ignorant about the terms of the treaty, he decided to ‘play on them’ or as he reported proudly to the Secretary of States: 48 ASP/FA, 2:354, Extract of a letter from Richard O’Brien to the Secretary of State, January 27, 1801. 49 Ibid., 2:381, From the President of the United States to Congress Relative to Transactions with the Barbary Powers, March 1, 1802. The full accounts for the period 1795-1801 appear in ASP/FA, 2:368- 81, The Barbary States, February 16, 1802. 50 Ibid., 2:382, Captain O’Brian to Consul Gavino, at Gibraltar, November 28, 1801. 51 Parker, Uncle Sam in Barbary, p. 125. O’Brien put the price at $98,000 (the Dey and Cathcart evaluated the two ships at $78,000). Cathcart, The Captives, p. 277. 350
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
Page 311 and 312: edemption of the remaining captives
Page 313 and 314: the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
Page 315 and 316: O’Brien letter supported the Swed
Page 317 and 318: 1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Page 321 and 322: Affairs, with respect to the truce.
Page 323 and 324: personally written to him.” 47 Th
Page 325 and 326: 1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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Page 329 and 330: ut diplomatically they were conside
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Page 333 and 334: passport issued by the United State
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Page 339 and 340: April 3, the Dey announced that, as
Page 341 and 342: that money for redeeming American p
Page 343 and 344: called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
Page 345 and 346: Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
Page 347 and 348: concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
Page 349 and 350: the source of much dissatisfaction
Page 351 and 352: egency, or from the misconduct of o
Page 353 and 354: specifying that the United States h
Page 355 and 356: Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
Page 357 and 358: But the events that unfolded at its
Page 359 and 360: As annual payments in naval materia
Page 361: I explained to you, sir, that it wa
Page 365 and 366: Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Page 369 and 370: dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
Page 371 and 372: treaty was sacred and that was agre
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Page 379 and 380: On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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Page 383 and 384: Monroe had played a prominent role
Page 385 and 386: armada and that of 1784 met the sam
Page 387 and 388: dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
Page 389 and 390: the United States “must hold the
Page 391 and 392: For sure, there were a number of al
Page 393 and 394: demonstration of American skill and
Page 395 and 396: Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 397 and 398: Table 10: The United States and Alg
Page 399 and 400: Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
Page 401 and 402: The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404: Appraisal of the long history of Al
Page 405 and 406: corsairing and its related activiti
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and for over than two hundred years
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the weak finances of the Confederat
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use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
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2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
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3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
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Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
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Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
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Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
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Suppression of White Christian Slav
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Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436:
_____. “The United States and the
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_____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440:
Hale, William H. “‘General’
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MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444:
Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
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Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448:
_____. “George Washington, Thomas
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Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452:
Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454:
Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
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intreated and grievously vexed, We
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Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
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other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
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Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
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not assist Great Britain in such wa
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Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
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those people is ineffectual, I urge
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consequently at the mercy of foreig
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and because all those powers are re
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Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
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Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
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having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
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Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
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Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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