Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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Jonsson, Mar. “The Expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain in 1609–1614: the Destruction of an Islamic periphery.” Journal of Global History, 2 (2007), pp. 195-212. Keene, Charles A. “American Shipping and Trade, 1798-1820: The Evidence from Leghorn.” The Journal of Economic History, 38: 3 (Sep., 1978), pp. 681- 700. Kirk, Russell. “The New Barbary Pirates.” Human Events, 27: 47 (Nov., 1967), p. 13. Kitzen, Michael. “Money Bags or Cannon Balls: The Origins of the Tripolitan War, 1795-1801.” Journal of the Early Republic, 16: 4 (Winter 1996), pp. 601- 624. Knobler, Adam. “Holy War, Empires, and the Portability of the Past: The Modern Uses of Medieval Crusades.” Comparative Studies in History and Society, 48: 2 (Apr., 2006), pp. 293-352. _____. “Pseudo-Conversions and Patchwork Pedigrees: The Christianization of Muslim Princes and the Diplomacy of Holy War.” Journal of World History, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1996), pp. 181-197. Labib, Subhi. “The Era of Suleiman the Magnificent: Crisis of Orientation.” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 10: 4 (Nov. 1979), pp. 435-451. Lee, Melvin E. “The Fallacy of Grievance-based Terrorism.” Middle East Quarterly (Winter 2008), pp. 71-79. Locke, Ralph P. “Cutthroats and Casbah Dancers, Muezzins and Timeless Sands: Musical Images of the Middle East.” 19th-Century Music, 22: 1 (Summer 1998), pp. 20-53. London, Joshua E. “Victory in Tripoli: Lessons for the War on Terrorism.” Heritage Lectures, 940 (May, 2006), pp. 1-7. Luft, Gal and Anne korin. “Terrorism Goes to Sea.” Foreign Affairs, 83: 6 (Nov./Dec. 2004), pp. 61-71. Lydon, James G. “Thomas Jefferson and the Mathurins.” Catholic Historical Review, 49: 2 (Jul., 1963), pp. 192-202. Lyons, Paul. “George W. Bush’s City on a Hill.” The Journal of the Historical Society, 6:1 (March 2006), 119-31. 427
MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and the Navy: A Defense.” Huntington Library Quarterly, 8: 1/4 (1944/1945), pp. 153-184. Mandel, Robert. “The Effectiveness of Gunboat Diplomacy.” International Studies Quarterly, 30: 1 (Mar., 1986), pp. 59-76. Marienstras, Elise. “Joel Barlow, de Redding (1754) a Zarnowiec (1812): rêves cosmopolitiques et cauchemars tyranniques d’un américain de bonne volonté.” La Revue Française des Etudes Américaine, 92 :2 (2002), pp. 68-85. Marks, Frederick W. “Foreign Affairs: A Winning Issue in the Campaign for Ratification of the United States Constitution.” Political Science Quarterly, 86: 3 (Sep., 1971), pp. 444-469. Matar, Nabil. “English Accounts of Captivity in North Africa and the Middle East: 1577-1625.” Renaissance Quarterly, 54: 2 (Summer 2001), pp. 553-572. McLachlan, K. S. “Tripoli and Tripolitania: Conflict and Cohesion during the Period of the Barbary Corsairs (1551-1850).” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, 3: 3, Settlement and Conflict in the Mediterranean World (1978), pp. 285-294. Mercier, E. “Ethnographie de L’Afrique septentrionale : notes sur l’origine du peuple berbère.” Revue Africaine. 15: 85 (Jan., 1871), pp. 420-433. Michael, John. “Beyond Us and Them: Identity and Terror from an Arab American’s Perspective.” The South Atlantic Quarterly, 102: 4 (Fall, 2003), pp. 701-728. Montes-Bradley, Saul, II and Larry Nathan Burns. “The Barbary Wars and the Treaties with Tripoli.” Flintlock and Powderhorn, 24: 2 (Summer 2006), pp. 1- 4. Montgomery, Benilde. “White Captives, African Slaves: A Drama of Abolition.” Eighteenth-Century Studies, 27: 4, African-American Culture in the Eighteenth-Century (Summer 1994), pp. 615-630. Montmorency, J. E. G. “The Barbary States in International Law.” Transactions of the Grotius Society, vol. 4 (1918), pp. 87-94. Naylor, R. T. “Ghosts of Terror Wars Past? Crime, Terror and America’s First Clash with the Saracen Hordes.” Crime, Law & Social Change, 45:2 (Mar., 2006), pp. 93-109. Nettels, Curtis P. “British Mercantilism and the Economic Development of the Thirteen Colonies,” in Abraham S. Eisenstadt, ed. American History: Recent 428
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
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the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
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Monroe had played a prominent role
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armada and that of 1784 met the sam
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dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
Page 389 and 390: the United States “must hold the
Page 391 and 392: For sure, there were a number of al
Page 393 and 394: demonstration of American skill and
Page 395 and 396: Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 397 and 398: Table 10: The United States and Alg
Page 399 and 400: Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
Page 401 and 402: The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404: Appraisal of the long history of Al
Page 405 and 406: corsairing and its related activiti
Page 407 and 408: statutes and treaties. In this capa
Page 409 and 410: distinction between corsairing and
Page 411 and 412: altered the geopolitical concerns o
Page 413 and 414: and for over than two hundred years
Page 415 and 416: the weak finances of the Confederat
Page 417 and 418: use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
Page 419 and 420: BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422: 2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424: 3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426: Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428: Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430: Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431 and 432: Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 433 and 434: Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tac
Page 435 and 436: _____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438: _____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439: Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 443 and 444: Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446: Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448: _____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450: Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452: Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454: Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456: intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458: Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
Page 459 and 460: other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
Page 461 and 462: Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
Page 463 and 464: not assist Great Britain in such wa
Page 465 and 466: Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
Page 467 and 468: those people is ineffectual, I urge
Page 469 and 470: consequently at the mercy of foreig
Page 471 and 472: and because all those powers are re
Page 473 and 474: Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
Page 475 and 476: Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
Page 477 and 478: having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
Page 479 and 480: Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
Page 481 and 482: Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
Page 483 and 484: Silsbee, of that place, while on a
Page 485 and 486: In coming before the town it is usu
Page 487 and 488: Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
Page 489 and 490: furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
Page 495 and 496:
amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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