Ottoman Algeria in Western Diplomatic History with ... - Bibliothèque

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Thomson, Ann. Barbary and enlightenment: European attitudes towards the Maghreb in the 18 th century. Leiden/New York/KØbenhavn: E. J. Brill, 1987. Tocqueville, Alexis de. Democracy in America. Translated by Henry Reeve. 2 vol., 4 th ed. New York/Boston: C. C. Little & J. Brown, 1838-1841. Tucker, Glenn. Dawn Like Thunder: The Barbary Wars and the Birth of the U.S. Navy. Indianapolis/New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1963 Tyler, Royall. The Algerine Captive: Six Years a Prisoner among the Algerines. Hartford, CT: Peter B. Gleason & Co, 1816. Upham, Charles W. The Life of Timothy Pickering. 4 Vol. Boston: Little, Brown, And Company, 1873. Wheelan, Joseph. Jefferson’s War: America’s First War on Terror, 1801–5. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003. Wright, Louis B. and Julia H. Macleod. The First Americans in North Africa: William Eaton’s Struggle for a Vigorous Policy against the Barbary Pirates, 1799-1805. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945. 2. Contributions Ahrweiler, Hélène. “Course et piraterie dans la méditerranée orientale aux XIVeme-XVeme siècles,” in Course et Piraterie: Etudes Présentées a la Commission Internationale d’Histoire Maritime a l’occasion de son XVe Colloque International pendant le XIVe Congrès International des Sciences Historiques (San Francisco, 1975), vol. 1. Paris: CNRS, 1975, pp. 1-21. Aymard, Maurice. “Chiourme et galère dans la seconde moitié du XVIe siècle,” in Ernest Labrousse et al., ed. Mélanges en l’honneur de Fernand Braudel. Vol 1 : Histoire économique du monde méditerranéen, 1450-1650. Paris : Privat éd., 1973, pp. 49-64. Bérenger, Jean. “La politique française en méditerranée au XVIe siècle & l’alliance ottomane,” in Michel Vergé-Franceschi and Antoine-Marie Graziani, eds., La guerre de course en Méditerranée (1515-1830). Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris IV-Sorbonne, 2000, pp. 9-26. Gerald MacLean. “Of Pirates, Slaves and Diplomats: Anglo-American Writing about the Maghrib in the Age of Empire,” in Claire Jowitt, ed., Pirates? The Politics of Plunder 1550-1650. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, pp. 169-185. 419
Guilmartin, John F. Jr., “The Tactics of the Battle of Lepanto Clarified: The Impact of Social, Economic, and Political Factors on Sixteenth Century Galley Warfare,” in Craig L. Symonds, New Aspects of Naval History: Selected Papers Presented at the Fourth Naval History Symposium, United States Naval Academy 25-26 October 1979. Annapolis, MD: The United States Naval Institute, 1981, pp. 41-65 Haines, Gerald K. and J. Samuel Walker, eds. American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981. Harlaftis, Gelina and Sophia Laiou, “Ottoman state policy in Mediterranean Trade and Shipping, c.1780-c.1820: The Rise of the Greek-Owned Ottoman Merchant Fleet,” in Mark Mazower, ed. Networks of Power in Modern Greece. New York: Hurst, 2008, pp. 1-31. Hunt, Michael H. “Traditions of American Diplomacy: From Colony to Great Power,” in Gordon Martel, ed. American Foreign Relations Reconsidered: 1890-1993. London/New York: Routledge, 1994, pp. 1-20. Jowitt, Claire. “Introduction,” in Claire Jowitt, ed. Pirates? The Politics of Plunder 1550-1650.” Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, pp. 3-19. Matar, Nabil. “Britain and Barbary, 1589–1689,” in Daniel J. Vitus, ed. Piracy, Slavery, and Redemption: Barbary Captivity Narratives from Early Modern England. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001, pp. 1-52. _____. “Piracy and Captivity in the Early Modern Mediterranean: The Perspective from Barbary,” in Claire Jowitt, ed. Pirates? The Politics of Plunder 1550-1650.” Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, pp. 56-73. Miller, Aurie Hollingsworth. “One Man’s View: William Shaler and Algiers,” in Alf A. Heggoy, ed., Through Foreign Eyes: Western Attitudes toward North Africa. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1982, pp. 7-55. Panzac, Daniel. “La course barbaresque revisitée, XVIe-XIXe siecles,” in Michel Vergé-Franceschi and Antoine-Marie Graziani, eds., La guerre de course en Méditerranée (1515-1830). Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris IV- Sorbonne, 2000, pp. 27-38. Parker, Kenneth “Reading ‘Barbary’ in Early Modern England, 1550–1685,” in Matthew Birchwood and Matthew Dimmock, eds. Cultural Encounters between East and West: 1453–1699. England: Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 2004, pp. 87–115. Saint-Vincent, Xavier Labat. “La guerre de course et ses effets sur le commerce en méditerrané au cours des guerres de cent ans et l’indépendance américaine,” 420
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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I wo
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ASP/FA Americ
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Dedicatio
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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CHAPTER VIII The Advent of Gunboat
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corsairing from within the context
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situated in the United States or Eu
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At a time the clash between Islam a
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may interrupt the flow of reading,
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elations with the United States cou
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Finally, other series cover miscell
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the same way the Mediterranean syst
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Part One Algiers in European Diplom
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States in the 1770s down to the con
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the Ottoman Empire. Then, he set ou
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Mamalik Sultans, the Crusaders were
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Maghrib, corresponding to nowadays
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with the aim of imposing vassalage
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1. 3. The Spaniards in North Africa
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western writers emphatically invoke
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fighting for Christian faith agains
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1. 3. 2. Crusades in North Africa T
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In 1541, Charles V headed an Armada
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Spanish Expeditions against Algiers
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2. 1. The Coming of the Turks The f
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Penon. The failure of the cannonade
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Mediterranean against the Habsburg
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Once in control of the land, Khayre
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part of the Ottoman fleet. While th
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In addition to Turks, the crews inc
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the Battle of Djerba (1560), the si
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One finds himself here far from the
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counted 70 vessels. One hundred yea
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Netherlands or via Jew brokers at L
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Murad Rais, pushed corsairing out o
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Spanish mobilized Christendom and l
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Barbary Coast. 2 Alleging piracy an
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chasing vessels on the high sea; wh
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Faced with such aggressiveness, Alg
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established perceptions, goes furth
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(barba’rei or ‏(بربري exis
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meaning a person speaking beneath h
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Christian corsairs. Hence, accordin
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asis for a variety of programs and
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freedom of navigation. Slavery was
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however, the pace of capture and en
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slaves. 71 However, in the absence
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2. The Legal Context of Corsairing
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confronts when looking into diploma
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corsairing. 79 Therefore, it is obv
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shipping, they operated like pirate
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“commission of war from some fore
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may be seen as “a cost-efficient
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shores of the Mediterranean, the wo
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This confusion in legal interpretat
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fanatics who had already sworn enmi
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treaties. 130 Not recognizing Algie
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harm” or nothing more than a “p
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were sometimes harsh—and in that
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these treaties survived for more th
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Other developments affected Algiers
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Ireland, for example, became within
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privileges, was going to recur to t
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at Algiers. Later, the government a
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utter. For this reason, visits of A
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council of prizes, were sold by auc
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elations between Algiers and wester
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2. 1. Sovereignty The nature of the
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destruction of the Algerian fleet w
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compensation for the occupation of
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small in numbers to settle conquere
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the return of Algerian captives ens
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Christians’ enslavement at a time
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1624. 78 Third, it tells also that
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Table 4: Treaties of Peace and Comm
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Table 5: European Naval Expeditions
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3. Decline of Corsairing Diplomacy
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privateering, was not officially ab
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precisely the best landing place fo
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The renegades largely contributed t
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At about the same period, i.e.: beg
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Europe and Algiers. 112 More, as ne
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principles of free access to ports
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Part Two Algiers in early American
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y religious antagonism and struggle
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also did it with the view of making
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Furthermore, the expulsion of tradi
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legally, they did not hesitate to c
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the Sublime Porte opened the gate w
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1622. England’s relations with Al
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adventurers who were roaming in the
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“would, it is more than probable,
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was taken by the utmost seriousness
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“could still seek their fortunes
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But Owing to hostilities triggered
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“jingoistic and melioristic” Am
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Worst, at a time Algerian corsairs
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American commissioner who throughou
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void because they emanated from a n
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is shown here by Franklin’s gratu
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Algiers particularly as a “pettif
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independence, the Continental Congr
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Franklin, John Dickenson, Thomas Je
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his letter book more than did the D
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Congress (Art. 2). More, the delega
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ulers of Algiers to doubt American
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Conclusion The Ocean fashioned the
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CHAPTER V American Commercial Diplo
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the Americans, the Europeans were k
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diplomacy’. Barbary, then, became
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trade against the North African sta
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and neutrality of shipping—contin
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Once on the field, Franklin wrote c
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markets and consequently economic p
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American diplomatic relations becau
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further French intervention on thei
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earlier sniveling fears and accusat
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Dutch side what had already been de
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the part of that state or its subje
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If the British government suffered
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esources, and so contemptible, that
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of the existing ‘balance of power
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encouraged the piratical states to
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Britain and France and makes them r
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Then, it was only when the American
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every ten years according to custom
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according to which the draft treati
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American agents, however, without i
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American vessels, Britain hoped to
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Passports seemed not to bother the
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Algiers, and for other reasons, was
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was instructed to redeem cheap on t
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supreme admiral of the Algerian nav
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proper in a matter of bargain.” 3
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edemption, and promise of Lamb to
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leave favorable impressions at Algi
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the states warning against travel t
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d’Affaires Guillaume Otto to writ
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2. Anti-Algerian Attitudes in early
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American turned up at his court he
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His unguarded expressions, his hint
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Lamb’s first option was not heele
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extermination of that “race of se
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But, he carried on, “when they ta
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Finally, comparing the total cost o
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conclusion of a peace treaty with A
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New Diplomacy, combining self-cente
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Dey. That was noted by the American
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if there is a probability of a war,
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prepare to support such of the frig
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“union of force” open to Europe
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ecomes even more amazing when in th
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given American predilection for agg
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Meanwhile at Algiers, Dey Muhammed
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edemption of the remaining captives
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the Swedish consul at Algiers and r
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O’Brien letter supported the Swed
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1. 2. 1. Algiers Relations with Eur
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Portugal with Algiers, Britain migh
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Affairs, with respect to the truce.
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personally written to him.” 47 Th
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1796. 55 Meanwhile, Humphreys instr
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presents on the arrival of an Ambas
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ut diplomatically they were conside
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Treaty of Peace and Commerce with A
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passport issued by the United State
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known as the Naval Act of 1794, whi
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the mouth of hell, if the Devil was
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April 3, the Dey announced that, as
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that money for redeeming American p
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called a ‘string of lies.’ Many
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Table 7: Estimated Cost of the Trea
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concluded rapidly. The treaty grant
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the source of much dissatisfaction
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egency, or from the misconduct of o
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specifying that the United States h
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Eaton’s vehemence rose even more
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But the events that unfolded at its
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As annual payments in naval materia
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I explained to you, sir, that it wa
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2. Algiers-United States Diplomatic
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Madison, his Secretary of State, ag
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Lear would be able to prevail on th
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dated August 1810. 73 Despite that,
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treaty was sacred and that was agre
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those very weaknesses. 88 Consequen
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the war with France had just ended,
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justified by a belief in the moral
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On June 28, the squadron arrived at
Page 381 and 382: the Estedio. 118 In early April 181
Page 383 and 384: Monroe had played a prominent role
Page 385 and 386: armada and that of 1784 met the sam
Page 387 and 388: dated April 10, 1815. 138 The commi
Page 389 and 390: the United States “must hold the
Page 391 and 392: For sure, there were a number of al
Page 393 and 394: demonstration of American skill and
Page 395 and 396: Conclusion Although Algiers and the
Page 397 and 398: Table 10: The United States and Alg
Page 399 and 400: Timeline, 1776-1816 (continued) 180
Page 401 and 402: The conservative observers, however
Page 403 and 404: Appraisal of the long history of Al
Page 405 and 406: corsairing and its related activiti
Page 407 and 408: statutes and treaties. In this capa
Page 409 and 410: distinction between corsairing and
Page 411 and 412: altered the geopolitical concerns o
Page 413 and 414: and for over than two hundred years
Page 415 and 416: the weak finances of the Confederat
Page 417 and 418: use of gunboat diplomacy resulted i
Page 419 and 420: BIBLIOGRAPHY I. Primary Sources 1.
Page 421 and 422: 2. Unofficial Printed Collections A
Page 423 and 424: 3. Autobiographies, Memoirs, Journa
Page 425 and 426: Holbrook, Samuel F. Threescore Year
Page 427 and 428: Cordingly, David ed. Pirates: Terro
Page 429 and 430: Lambert, Frank. The Barbary Wars: A
Page 431: Suppression of White Christian Slav
Page 435 and 436: _____. “The United States and the
Page 437 and 438: _____. “El Cid: Moslems and Chris
Page 439 and 440: Hale, William H. “‘General’
Page 441 and 442: MacLeod, Julia H. “Jefferson and
Page 443 and 444: Rose, Susan. “Islam versus Christ
Page 445 and 446: Weiss, Gillian. “Imagining Europe
Page 447 and 448: _____. “George Washington, Thomas
Page 449 and 450: Finnemore, John. Barbary Rovers, 19
Page 451 and 452: Pipes, Daniel. “In 1796 US Vowed
Page 453 and 454: Maynadies, Michel. Bibliographie Al
Page 455 and 456: intreated and grievously vexed, We
Page 457 and 458: Appendix 2 A. Treaty between Great
Page 459 and 460: other of His Majesty’s roads, hav
Page 461 and 462: Appendix 3 Plan of a Treaty with Fr
Page 463 and 464: not assist Great Britain in such wa
Page 465 and 466: Appendix 5 Adams-Jefferson Exchange
Page 467 and 468: those people is ineffectual, I urge
Page 469 and 470: consequently at the mercy of foreig
Page 471 and 472: and because all those powers are re
Page 473 and 474: Appendix 8 Hassan Dey of Algiers to
Page 475 and 476: Appendix 9 Treaty of Peace and Amit
Page 477 and 478: having a Regular pass-port Specifyi
Page 479 and 480: Appendix 10 A. Dey Hassan to George
Page 481 and 482: Appendix 11 Mediterranean Passport
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Silsbee, of that place, while on a
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In coming before the town it is usu
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Appendix 14 Treaty of Peace and Ami
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furnished at the market price, and
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of the United States, and the citiz
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said Admiral, your servant, all tha
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amicable sentiments towards the Uni
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understanding between them and the
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était d’aussi bonne prise que le
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GLOSSARY Agha Al-Jizya Armada Beyle
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Parias Pasha Peñón Presidio Qaid
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ABSTRACT Recent western writings de
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