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[t is clear from Table 6.1 that around 40 percent of the sample farmers in Hagedal and 30 percent of the sample farmers in Gundur adopted curative measures. Farmers adopting curative strategies are more in Hagedal than Gundur because the soil-related problems are more profound in Hagedal (see Figure-5.l). The most important practice adopted by sample farmers in Hagedal to mitigate soil-related problems is application of gypsum (46.3 percent) and zinc (43.4 percent) to neutralize the carbonate and bicarbonate salts. Applications of these interventions are more frequent in Hagedal when compared to Gundur (see Table-8.l). [n Gundur, the dominant practice is to use more seed per acre (34 percent) particularly by the farmers in the head reach because more land is atTected by waterlogging in this region. Their belief is that the increased seed rate helps to overcome poor seed germination. This also corroborates the high correlation coefficient between seed and yield in the waterlogged soils of Gundur (see Table-8.2). More frequently, farmers produced their own seeds, while sometimes it was obtained through public seeds corporation, co-operatives or through local retailers. Generally, farmers save their own rice seed. The commercial orientation of many farmers has led to an increasing demand for purchased seed. Farmers had access to good quality seeds both in Hagedal and Gundur. Another strategy adopted by the farmers is deep and intensive ploughing 2 to reduce the adverse effects. These strategies are more poplar in Hagedal. This practice helps in the leaching of salt and enables the land to absorb more water. Also shallow, dry ploughing soon after harvesting the previous rice crop is another strategy followed to minimize soil cracking. The ploughed layer acts as mulch and therefore reduces soil drying and consequent cracking. Deep ploughing breaks up the hard surface of the soil and eradicates the weeds. Animal drawn plough and tractors are used for ploughing. It was found that small farmers ploughed their plots 5 to 6 times before sowing; the large farmers did so 4 to 5 times. Generally, the frequency of ploughing differs according to the type of soil. However, ploughing needs to be done properly to prevent the formation of a plough layer or return of salty soil closer to the soil surface (Abrol et al. \988). 2 Repeated ploughing of soil sometimes trigger soil erosion in erosion prone area~. Since the study area is not prone to erosion, repeated ploughing increases the water retentIOn capacIty of the soIl. 126
The next most frequently used strategy in Gundur is application of gypsum (31.9 percent) followed by application of fertilizer (29.7 percent). Although farmers used fertilizer to improve the fertility of the soil some of them complained that the texture of the soil changed in the long run. The upper part of the soil became very fine and prone to erosion, while a hard pan appeared in the subsoil. Chemical fertilizers are generally seen as a shortterm investment, whose impact is immediate but limited to a single cropping season. Their long-term effects are viewed rather negatively, as farmers believe that they 'kill' the land, making it 'addicted' and unable to produce crops without continuous amendments. They claimed that urea bums the crops when rainfall is low. However farmers continued to use fertilizer extensively as it is necessary to avoid reduction in yields and HYV of rice would not perform well without fertilizer in good irrigated conditions. This also corroborates the high correlation coetlicient between fertilizer and yield in Gundur (see Table 8.2). Table 6.2: Preventive Measures Adopted by the Farmers to Solve Adverse Effects on Soil Farmers applying these Strategy strategies* Gundur Hagedal Land leveling and shaping 45 (95.7) 61 (88.4) Bunding 32 (68.0) 41 (59.4) Maintain tield canals 44 (93.6) 53 (76.8) Avoid over irrigation 44 (93.6) 49(63.7) Fallow 17 (36.1) 14(20.1) Total (in %) 77.4 61.7 .. Note: FIgures m parentheSIS mdlcates the percentages. * Multiple responses (farmers may apply more than two strategies). It can be seen from Table 6.2 that preventive strategies are more popular in Gundur (around 77 percent) than in Hagedal (around 61 percent). The most popular preventive strategy practised by the farmers in Gundur and Hagedal was land leveling and shaping. Salts first appear and are seen in the low-lying areas of the plot. After rains, water stagnates in these depressions and forms a crust. To overcome these problems as many as 96 percent of farmers in Gundur and 88 percent of farmers in Hagedal practised land leveling and shaping. Technically, these practices are considered important because they help to ensure the uniform spread of water across the plot. It helps in improving irrigation efficiency and hence control waterlogging and salinity. 127
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Water Users Association and Irrigat
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Phone: 91 080-23215468/5592/5519 FA
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grant was of great help in undertak
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LIST OF TABLES Page. No. 1.1: Outla
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8.3: Estimated Production Functions
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Chapter 1 Introduction The natural
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partition, 8.8 million hectares of
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levels. This is more so with major
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"twin problems" (Details of general
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~~~,~~ Figure 1.1 gives the data fr
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much lower at 1.6 million hectares
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Table 1.3: Incidence of Waterloggin
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as they severely limit the choice o
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water managers sometimes succumbed
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(Carruthus 1981 & 1985; OED 1989; F
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While some of the root causes contr
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Irrigation tends to artificially in
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Appendix 1.2: Important committees,
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degradation is more in the command
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The study by Abassi (1991) on the e
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account of irrigation development a
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without providing adequate canal se
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, Sathyanarayana et al. (200 I) doc
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in the operation and maintenance of
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waterlogging. The study emphasizes
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... The studies reviewed so far, cl
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to ensure greater production from l
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mentioned the effective training of
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Transfer of management for the 12,0
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Ahmad (2000) claimed that water sca
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Chapter 3 Objectives, Methodology a
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components of the same l . The envi
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Table 3.1: Total Number of Farmers
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Secondary data have been collected
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Lowdennilk 1981). Bardhan (1984) an
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attempting to achieve collective be
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External conditions: Physical and t
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etc. It is a supply-oriented design
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Appendix 3.1: Salient Features of T
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Chapter 4 Profile of the Sample Vil
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Figure 4.3: Map of Gllndllr Village
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is used to supplement the canal wat
Page 85 and 86: It is interesting to note that leas
Page 87 and 88: Table 4.2: Caste-wise Distribution
Page 89 and 90: more land in the upper and middle r
Page 91 and 92: than 30 years experience (see Table
Page 93 and 94: Table 4.12: Distribution of Farmers
Page 95 and 96: cultivation in the upper and the mi
Page 97 and 98: Labor shortages are common at peak
Page 99 and 100: amount of RS.25 but during the year
Page 101 and 102: majority of the sample fanners are
Page 103 and 104: I. To introduce a schedule of water
Page 105 and 106: Rule Enforcement .:. The Associatio
Page 107 and 108: Chapter 5 Farmers' Knowledge and Pe
Page 109 and 110: transect walks which revealed that
Page 111 and 112: consumption which are known to be s
Page 113 and 114: should be noted that these lands ha
Page 115 and 116: their lands fully, while some suffe
Page 117 and 118: management strategies and type of c
Page 119 and 120: d · 15 degra at IOn . ill Hagedal,
Page 121 and 122: cropping and intensive irrigation o
Page 123 and 124: Farmers knowledge of the proposed c
Page 125 and 126: Reasons for violation In both the v
Page 127 and 128: mild waterlogging and were not cult
Page 129 and 130: 1 0 increasing susceptibility of cr
Page 131 and 132: of a water intensive crop. The exce
Page 133 and 134: over irrigate their fields. There a
Page 135: depends on the provision of opportu
Page 139 and 140: irrigation channels is the responsi
Page 141 and 142: the field than needed as insurance
Page 143 and 144: of the irrigation fields are kept i
Page 145 and 146: In a detailed analysis of the TBP,
Page 147 and 148: The most popular practice in Gundur
Page 149 and 150: grazing lands and the consequent re
Page 151 and 152: do poor quality work. There IS gove
Page 153 and 154: the task of organizational and admi
Page 155 and 156: have merged the information from bo
Page 157 and 158: Three brothers working on leased la
Page 159 and 160: everyone individually chooses to ta
Page 161 and 162: irrigation officials who exercised
Page 163 and 164: water] The local leadership is not
Page 165 and 166: Rs. 50 per acre during Rabi to the
Page 167 and 168: In afocus group discussion one of t
Page 169 and 170: I In Gundur, women are members in t
Page 171 and 172: I It can be noted from Table 7.4 th
Page 173 and 174: I land and other farmers do not mak
Page 175 and 176: • that cattle do not damage the i
Page 177 and 178: I the existing situations of their
Page 179 and 180: I riding" has become a rational cho
Page 181 and 182: I customary nonns. Intangible benef
Page 183 and 184: I tennite mounds on fields. They be
Page 185 and 186: I Leadership The quality of leaders
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• One o{the office bearers commen
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• the causes for waterlogging and
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• keeping water cess books and bi
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• through strict rule enforcement
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• to improve the quality of the W
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collective management drainage. The
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PIM initiative did not originate in
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sustainability could be expected th
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Chapter 8 Impact of Water Users' As
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I examines the efficacy of fanners
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I is 2744.15 kg whereas in Hagedal
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lands in Gundur is more compared to
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Table 8.3: Estimated Production Fun
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decline by 2.5 percent in Gundur an
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In Gundur, farmers identified crop
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I Other key problems were the poor
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• Appendix 8.1: Water Availabilit
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• Chapter 9 Summary and Conclusio
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I In Hagedal, one of the sample vil
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I In irrigated fanning of the fanne
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I management practices evolved by W
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• comparable estimates, it would
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• PIM policy should not just stop
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References Abbasi~ S. A. 199} .. En
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Bre~e~·hJ· d S , Kolavalli. A. H.
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• Dhawan, B. D. 2002. Technologic
Page 239 and 240:
Gmernment of India. Tenth Five- Yea
Page 241 and 242:
Joshi. P. K. ,.1987. "Effect of Sur
Page 243 and 244:
Maloney._ C and K. V. Raju. 1994. '
Page 245 and 246:
Olson, M. 1965. The Logic of"Collec
Page 247 and 248:
Reddy, t'vl. Venkata. 1996. "Tungab
Page 249 and 250:
Sridharan. K. and S. Vedula. 1985.
Page 251 and 252:
Wade, Robert. 1987 "Ma . '. . . . n
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