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Water use efficiency Poor water use efficienc/ is a major cause of rising water tables. Rosergrant (1991), cited in Crosson & Anderson (1992), estimates the water use efficiency in many systems in Asia and shows that it varies between 25 and 40 percent. That is, 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of water channeled to farms is not available for crop use. The inefficient application of irrigation water by farmers as a major contributory factor to increasing water tables has been noted extensively (Aceves-Navarro 1985; Postel 1985; FAO 1988 and 1990; World Bank 1991). Aceves-Navarro (1985) reports that in Mexico, when irrigation was introduced in the arid areas, fanners believed that, as more water was applied, a higher yield was obtained. This belief led to serious seepage and salinity problems in the Mexican irrigation districts. In the Chashma project in Pakistan with a shift to more water-demanding crops such as rice and sugarcane, there was excessive irrigation by farmers during the early stages of project development when water was abundant. As a result, water tables rose more quickly than expected leading to the need to invest in drainage works at an earlier date than anticipated (World Bank 1991). In India, the typical situation in most irrigated commands is violation of cropping pattern and over watering in the head reaches and lack of water at the tail. This has contributed significantly to localized waterlogging and salinization in the head reaches of the command area of major protective irrigation projects. Waterlogging and salinization in the head reaches especially aggravated monsoon waterlogging in eastern India (World Bank 1991). The main cause of waterlogging appears to be excess water application due to excessive paddy cultivation (Abbasi 1991). The Tenth Five Year Plan mentions that unsustainable practices like excessive use of water together with imbalanced use of fertilizers especially after the green revolution has affected the soil health and environment adversely. Carruthes (1985) notes that the shift from seasonal to perennial irrigation in Egypt, India and Pakistan could not be efficiently handled by farmers and seepage increased. In addition 7 Water usc efficiency refers to the relationship between the amount of water required for a particular purpose and the quantity of water delivered. Irrigation water use et11ciency is measured at three different levels: conveyance, distribution, and at the field. 16
water managers sometimes succumbed to pressure from farmers to increase water supply and many canals were run bank-full much above the design. This contributed to increased seepage and waste when the canal bank breaches occurred. On thc one hand, poor on-farm water-use efficiency can be traced to poor water management by both farmers and irrigation authorities. On the other hand, government policics have played a major role in influencing the type of technology and water application method used by the farmer and the volume of irrigation water applied. Drainage In most irrigation projects, the problem of irrigation induced waterlogging and salinity arises because of the absence or insufficiency of drainage infrastructure. In some cases, although drainage facilities are constructed, poor construction and/or maintenance lead to rapid deterioration, rendering them ineffectual long before the end of their expected usual life. According to data available from the Drainage Working Group of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, over 50 percent of the world's irrigated lands have developed drainage problems (Abdel-Dayem 2000). An evaluation study of the Operations Evaluation Division of the World Bank (1991) reported that the soil salinity problems found in the Pyongteak-Kumgang Irrigation Project in Korea, the Seyhan Irrigation Project in Turkey, the San Lorenzo Project Irrigation and Land Settlement Project in Peru and the Rio Sinaloa Project in Mexico were caused mostly by poor drainage. In India, although waterlogging and salinity problems were observed in several areas due to poor drainage, investments were channeled to further the expansion of irrigated areas, rather than the construction of drainage infrastructure (Makin & Goldsmith 1988; Carruthers & Smith 1990). Several factors explain the negligence of the drainage component, despite its crucial importance. First, drainage facilities have been dif1icult to justify at the outset of a project under the prevailing economic analysis as the main benefit of drainage is realized only after some time. In India, the CWC, in the Theme Paper on Water and Environment, 1992 says: 17
Page 1 and 2: Water Users Association and Irrigat
Page 3 and 4: Phone: 91 080-23215468/5592/5519 FA
Page 5 and 6: grant was of great help in undertak
Page 7 and 8: LIST OF TABLES Page. No. 1.1: Outla
Page 9 and 10: 8.3: Estimated Production Functions
Page 11 and 12: Chapter 1 Introduction The natural
Page 13 and 14: partition, 8.8 million hectares of
Page 15 and 16: levels. This is more so with major
Page 17 and 18: "twin problems" (Details of general
Page 19 and 20: ~~~,~~ Figure 1.1 gives the data fr
Page 21 and 22: much lower at 1.6 million hectares
Page 23 and 24: Table 1.3: Incidence of Waterloggin
Page 25: as they severely limit the choice o
Page 29 and 30: (Carruthus 1981 & 1985; OED 1989; F
Page 31 and 32: While some of the root causes contr
Page 33 and 34: Irrigation tends to artificially in
Page 35 and 36: Appendix 1.2: Important committees,
Page 37 and 38: degradation is more in the command
Page 39 and 40: The study by Abassi (1991) on the e
Page 41 and 42: account of irrigation development a
Page 43 and 44: without providing adequate canal se
Page 45 and 46: , Sathyanarayana et al. (200 I) doc
Page 47 and 48: in the operation and maintenance of
Page 49 and 50: waterlogging. The study emphasizes
Page 51 and 52: ... The studies reviewed so far, cl
Page 53 and 54: to ensure greater production from l
Page 55 and 56: mentioned the effective training of
Page 57 and 58: Transfer of management for the 12,0
Page 59 and 60: Ahmad (2000) claimed that water sca
Page 61 and 62: Chapter 3 Objectives, Methodology a
Page 63 and 64: components of the same l . The envi
Page 65 and 66: Table 3.1: Total Number of Farmers
Page 67 and 68: Secondary data have been collected
Page 69 and 70: Lowdennilk 1981). Bardhan (1984) an
Page 71 and 72: attempting to achieve collective be
Page 73 and 74: External conditions: Physical and t
Page 75 and 76: etc. It is a supply-oriented design
Page 77 and 78:
Appendix 3.1: Salient Features of T
Page 79 and 80:
Chapter 4 Profile of the Sample Vil
Page 81 and 82:
Figure 4.3: Map of Gllndllr Village
Page 83 and 84:
is used to supplement the canal wat
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It is interesting to note that leas
Page 87 and 88:
Table 4.2: Caste-wise Distribution
Page 89 and 90:
more land in the upper and middle r
Page 91 and 92:
than 30 years experience (see Table
Page 93 and 94:
Table 4.12: Distribution of Farmers
Page 95 and 96:
cultivation in the upper and the mi
Page 97 and 98:
Labor shortages are common at peak
Page 99 and 100:
amount of RS.25 but during the year
Page 101 and 102:
majority of the sample fanners are
Page 103 and 104:
I. To introduce a schedule of water
Page 105 and 106:
Rule Enforcement .:. The Associatio
Page 107 and 108:
Chapter 5 Farmers' Knowledge and Pe
Page 109 and 110:
transect walks which revealed that
Page 111 and 112:
consumption which are known to be s
Page 113 and 114:
should be noted that these lands ha
Page 115 and 116:
their lands fully, while some suffe
Page 117 and 118:
management strategies and type of c
Page 119 and 120:
d · 15 degra at IOn . ill Hagedal,
Page 121 and 122:
cropping and intensive irrigation o
Page 123 and 124:
Farmers knowledge of the proposed c
Page 125 and 126:
Reasons for violation In both the v
Page 127 and 128:
mild waterlogging and were not cult
Page 129 and 130:
1 0 increasing susceptibility of cr
Page 131 and 132:
of a water intensive crop. The exce
Page 133 and 134:
over irrigate their fields. There a
Page 135 and 136:
depends on the provision of opportu
Page 137 and 138:
The next most frequently used strat
Page 139 and 140:
irrigation channels is the responsi
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the field than needed as insurance
Page 143 and 144:
of the irrigation fields are kept i
Page 145 and 146:
In a detailed analysis of the TBP,
Page 147 and 148:
The most popular practice in Gundur
Page 149 and 150:
grazing lands and the consequent re
Page 151 and 152:
do poor quality work. There IS gove
Page 153 and 154:
the task of organizational and admi
Page 155 and 156:
have merged the information from bo
Page 157 and 158:
Three brothers working on leased la
Page 159 and 160:
everyone individually chooses to ta
Page 161 and 162:
irrigation officials who exercised
Page 163 and 164:
water] The local leadership is not
Page 165 and 166:
Rs. 50 per acre during Rabi to the
Page 167 and 168:
In afocus group discussion one of t
Page 169 and 170:
I In Gundur, women are members in t
Page 171 and 172:
I It can be noted from Table 7.4 th
Page 173 and 174:
I land and other farmers do not mak
Page 175 and 176:
• that cattle do not damage the i
Page 177 and 178:
I the existing situations of their
Page 179 and 180:
I riding" has become a rational cho
Page 181 and 182:
I customary nonns. Intangible benef
Page 183 and 184:
I tennite mounds on fields. They be
Page 185 and 186:
I Leadership The quality of leaders
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• One o{the office bearers commen
Page 189 and 190:
• the causes for waterlogging and
Page 191 and 192:
• keeping water cess books and bi
Page 193 and 194:
• through strict rule enforcement
Page 195 and 196:
• to improve the quality of the W
Page 197 and 198:
collective management drainage. The
Page 199 and 200:
PIM initiative did not originate in
Page 201 and 202:
sustainability could be expected th
Page 203 and 204:
Chapter 8 Impact of Water Users' As
Page 205 and 206:
I examines the efficacy of fanners
Page 207 and 208:
I is 2744.15 kg whereas in Hagedal
Page 209 and 210:
lands in Gundur is more compared to
Page 211 and 212:
Table 8.3: Estimated Production Fun
Page 213 and 214:
decline by 2.5 percent in Gundur an
Page 215 and 216:
In Gundur, farmers identified crop
Page 217 and 218:
I Other key problems were the poor
Page 219 and 220:
• Appendix 8.1: Water Availabilit
Page 221 and 222:
• Chapter 9 Summary and Conclusio
Page 223 and 224:
I In Hagedal, one of the sample vil
Page 225 and 226:
I In irrigated fanning of the fanne
Page 227 and 228:
I management practices evolved by W
Page 229 and 230:
• comparable estimates, it would
Page 231 and 232:
• PIM policy should not just stop
Page 233 and 234:
References Abbasi~ S. A. 199} .. En
Page 235 and 236:
Bre~e~·hJ· d S , Kolavalli. A. H.
Page 237 and 238:
• Dhawan, B. D. 2002. Technologic
Page 239 and 240:
Gmernment of India. Tenth Five- Yea
Page 241 and 242:
Joshi. P. K. ,.1987. "Effect of Sur
Page 243 and 244:
Maloney._ C and K. V. Raju. 1994. '
Page 245 and 246:
Olson, M. 1965. The Logic of"Collec
Page 247 and 248:
Reddy, t'vl. Venkata. 1996. "Tungab
Page 249 and 250:
Sridharan. K. and S. Vedula. 1985.
Page 251 and 252:
Wade, Robert. 1987 "Ma . '. . . . n
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