The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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98 3. Echinoderm (Fellaster zelandiae) 36 hour chronic development. Toxicity analysis was based upon the use <strong>of</strong> stormwater collected from the UNITEC stormwater system in Mt Albert, Auckland. As noted earlier for toxicity tests in freshwater, variation was found in the toxicity observed between different storm events tested. Acute responses occurred for marine amphipods in one <strong>of</strong> three storms while chronic responses were observed for marine diatoms and echinoderms in the tests. Both tests showed that toxic responses were less in unfiltered samples. Hickey et al. (1997) noted that the marine acute criteria for Cu, was exceeded in the UNITEC stormwater pond discharge on several <strong>of</strong> the sampling occasions. <strong>The</strong> chronic criteria were exceeded for Cd, Cu and Pb in the UNITEC stormwater. Tiefenthaler et al. (2001) examined the toxicity <strong>of</strong> run<strong>of</strong>f (simulated rainfall) from car park areas in Long Beach California. All samples <strong>of</strong> simulated run<strong>of</strong>f were considered toxic but not all species used in the tests responded in a similar manner. <strong>The</strong> purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) and marine bacteria were the most sensitive while a mysid shrimp was the least sensitive. Toxicity was related to length <strong>of</strong> contaminant exposure with toxicity increasing by a factor <strong>of</strong> 6 after 28 days <strong>of</strong> exposure. <strong>The</strong> study also found that a toxic first flush was also present in samples collected in the first 10 minutes <strong>of</strong> the event with samples twice as toxic as samples taken later in the storm event. <strong>The</strong>se findings follow the pattern <strong>of</strong> constituent concentrations especially the concentration <strong>of</strong> dissolved metals (refer comments in Section 4 <strong>of</strong> this report in relation to dissolved metal concentrations). Tiefenthaler et al. (2001) undertook TIE to elucidate the causal agents for the toxicity. <strong>The</strong>y found that complexation <strong>of</strong> metals completely removed toxicity, concentrations <strong>of</strong> dissolved Zn were high enough to elicit a toxic response and variation in the Zn concentration was correlated to the variability in toxicity observed in test organisms. Bay et al. (2003) examined the toxicity <strong>of</strong> stormwater from Ballona and Malibu Creeks which discharge into Santa Monica Bay, California. <strong>The</strong> examination <strong>of</strong> stormwater samples (using purple sea urchin fertilisation test with exposure for 20 minutes and salinity adjusted using brine) showed that every sample from Ballona Creek was toxic with NOECs ranging from
99 Greater toxicity was present in waters closest to the Creek mouth, while samples collected outside the discharge plume (as defined by salinity) were non-toxic. Toxicity typically extended further <strong>of</strong>f-shore during large events. Toxicity was found to occur within the plume when the diluted plume contained >7% stormwater on one occasion and >10% on another. Bay et al. (2003) concluded that the toxicity present was related to the amount <strong>of</strong> diluted stormwater present. As a consequence the authors identified a significant area <strong>of</strong> coast where toxicity was predicted to occur in seawater based upon the plume dilution. To elucidate the cause <strong>of</strong> the observed toxicity Bay et al. (2003) undertook TIEs to isolate the likely cause <strong>of</strong> the toxicity. Addition <strong>of</strong> EDTA to stormwater samples always removed toxicity; removal <strong>of</strong> non-polar organic compounds was sometimes effective but removal <strong>of</strong> particulates or oxidants were not effective. Further work on <strong>of</strong>f-shore water samples produced similar but variable results (refer Fig. 7.2). EDTA was still effective at removing the identified toxicity. Analysis <strong>of</strong> stormwater samples for dissolved metals identified that dissolved Zn and Cu concentrations averaged 66 and 13 mg/m 3 respectively. It was identified that the NOEC values for the two metals were 8 and 17 mg/m 3 respectively and the EC 50 29 and 30 mg/m 3 . It was considered that none <strong>of</strong> the other elements examined were present in sufficient concentrations to produce a toxic response. However for some elements (e.g., Ag and Hg and Ni) there was not sufficient data put forward by the authors to draw any conclusion. Figure 7.2 - TIE results for Ballona Creek stormwater and <strong>of</strong>fshore water samples (dashed line represents baseline samples) (taken from Bay et al. 2003). Schiff et al. (2002) also examined stormwater toxicity from Chollas Creek (San Diego, California) which discharges into San Diego Bay. <strong>The</strong> catchment comprised 67% residential, 12% commercial/industrial and 4% roadways. <strong>The</strong> purple sea urchin exhibited toxic responses to stormwater at dilutions down to 6- 12% stormwater. In contrast, the mysid shrimp (Mysidopsis bahia) did not exhibit any toxic response. Tests were also conducted using the freshwater flea (Ceratodaphnia) which exhibited intermediate toxic responses. TIEs conducted to identify the constituents contributing the stormwater toxicity revealed that Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
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The Effect
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Intentionally Blank ii
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ii 4.2 Particulates in Urban Run<st
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iv 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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vi MW Molecular weight N Nitrogen N
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2 1. Moncrieff, I.; Kennedy, P. 200
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4 Table 2.1 - Contaminant Source Cl
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6 mg/kg) and Zn (25-34,500 mg/kg).
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8 Bitumen Bitumen is produced in Ne
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10 differences between petrol and d
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12 on the nature of</strong
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14 As such, available information i
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16 An examination of</stron
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18 Yang et al. (1999) examined the
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20 to elevated concentrations in ty
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22 sample of overs
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24 suspension and that carried as b
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26 Figure 4.1 - Variation in the co
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28 Figure 4.2 - Variation in the co
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30 Metal Cu Cd Pb Zn Table 4.6 - Su
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32 probably reflect lower traffic d
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34 (1995) provide a general review
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36 Further data can be found in the
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38 by ARC (1994) indicated that TPH
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40 Cations/Anions Common ionic cons
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42 Catchpits Between the street sur
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44 5 PATHWAYS & FATE OF CONTAMINANT
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46 The material wh
Page 58 and 59: 48 crystalline species present were
Page 60 and 61: 50 Figure 5.1 - Percentage
Page 62 and 63: 52 short (e.g., < 1 day). In water,
Page 64 and 65: 54 5.4.2 Dispersion Dilution and di
Page 66 and 67: 56 5.6 Summary The
Page 68 and 69: 58 6.2 Freshwater Ecosystems 6.2.1
Page 70 and 71: 60 General Assessment Tools Commonl
Page 72 and 73: 62 3. Increasing sediment inputs. 4
Page 74 and 75: 64 considered that taxa richness wa
Page 76 and 77: 66 Freshwater macro-invertebrate me
Page 78 and 79: 68 runoff to fish
Page 80 and 81: 70 deposition, tracking of<
Page 82 and 83: 72 one factor used to classify orga
Page 84 and 85: 74 Zinc Measurement of</str
Page 86 and 87: 76 in stormwater and receiving wate
Page 88 and 89: 78 minute; sub-mitochondrial partic
Page 90 and 91: 80 Toxicity tests have undertaken u
Page 92 and 93: 82 High molecular weight PAHs are t
Page 94 and 95: 84 Note: Sources refer Table 5.2. F
Page 96 and 97: 86 Although a range of</str
Page 98 and 99: 88 Bioaccumulation can be assessed
Page 100 and 101: 90 Figure 6.2 - metal concentration
Page 102 and 103: 92 6.5.3 Bioaccumulation of
Page 104 and 105: 94 Water Stormwater quality data fr
Page 106 and 107: 96 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
Page 110 and 111: 100 trace metals (probably Cu and Z
Page 112 and 113: 102 concentrations of</stro
Page 114 and 115: 104 that “concentrations
Page 116 and 117: 106 A large amount of</stro
Page 118 and 119: 108 A review of se
Page 120 and 121: 110 Samples of man
Page 122 and 123: 112 grazers such as mud flat snails
Page 124 and 125: 114 8. OVERVIEW 8.1 Vehicles as sou
Page 126 and 127: 116 The quality <s
Page 128 and 129: 118 International studies have show
Page 130 and 131: 120 A number of st
Page 132 and 133: 122 construction. Center for Resear
Page 134 and 135: 124 Carey, J.; Cook, P.; Ciesy, J.;
Page 136 and 137: 126 Ellis, J. B. 1986: Pollutional
Page 138 and 139: 128 Harrop D. O. 1984: Stormwater r
Page 140 and 141: 130 Kennedy, P. C.; Kjellstrom, T.
Page 142 and 143: 132 Maltby, L. A.; Boxall, D. M.; F
Page 144 and 145: 134 Novotny, V.; Muehring, D.; Zito
Page 146 and 147: 136 Ruck, J. 1998: Evaluation <stro
Page 148 and 149: 138 Terracciano, S. A.; O’Brien,
Page 150 and 151: 140 Webster, J. G.; Brown, K. L.; W
Page 152: 142 10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to
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The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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