The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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4 Table 2.1 - Contaminant Source Classification Framework. Powertrain Area Fuel Exhaust System Lubricants Coolants Sealants Hydraulics Braking (and clutch) Tyres <strong>Road</strong>s Vehicle Body – Sundry Component Base stocks Blendstocks Additives – initial formulation Additives – after-market Evaporative emissions Combustion emissions; gaseous, Combustion emissions; particulate Emissions control system; erosion Emissions control system; control additives Engine oil (sump and 2-T) Gear oil Oil additives – after-market Bearing grease Chassis grease Engine coolant Stop-leak additives Induction intercooler systems Air conditioning refrigerants Gaskets Jointing compounds Fillers Brake servo systems Clutch servo systems Auto transmission fluid Power transmission Suspension systems Auxiliaries (power transmission) Friction linings Tread surfaces wear Carcase weathering Pavement surfaces; wear Pavement surfaces; weathering Plasticisers Paintwork Metal corrosion Surface coatings weathering; (paintwork and underbody protection) Windscreen washer additives Vehicle washdown (roadside) Drive belts; engine auxiliaries Battery fluids Cargo losses Kennedy et al. (2002) reviewed available information on the contaminants in key emission sources. Those sources considered in the report were tyres, friction linings (brake pads), exhaust emissions, loss <strong>of</strong> oil and grease and the wear <strong>of</strong> bitumen from road surfaces. Some <strong>of</strong> the information used in the review included analytical data for New Zealand tyres, brake pads and bitumen presented in Kennedy & Gadd (2000) and Gadd & Kennedy (2000). Both Moncrieff & Kennedy (2002) and Kennedy et al. (2002) present information on the nature <strong>of</strong> contaminant sources and the nature <strong>of</strong> contaminants present in and emitted from the key contaminant sources. For further information and detail those reports should be referred to as the following sections provide an overview only <strong>of</strong> the contaminants in those sources. Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
5 2.3 Inorganic Contaminants 2.3.1 Fuel Fuels contain low concentrations <strong>of</strong> a range <strong>of</strong> metals due to their presence in the original unrefined petroleum. Elements known to be present in elevated concentrations in crude oil and therefore possibly present in petrol include cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn) and vanadium (V). Following earlier reductions in the lead (Pb) content <strong>of</strong> New Zealand petrol, it became illegal to sell leaded petrol in September 1996. As leaded petrol is no longer available for motor vehicles in New Zealand, Pb that accumulated in vehicle engines and exhaust systems prior to that date, should have been eliminated from vehicles by now. Although API (1985a,b) identify that there are low concentrations <strong>of</strong> metals in petrol, no information appears available on the concentration <strong>of</strong> metals in New Zealand petrol and diesel to confirm the significance <strong>of</strong> petrol combustion as an emissions source <strong>of</strong> metals in this country. Metals are not lost though evaporative processes. As such, the evaporative process is not considered to be a significant pathway for inorganic constituents to reach the road environment. 2.3.2 Oil and Grease Oil contains a range <strong>of</strong> trace metals, the concentration <strong>of</strong> which is dependent on the origin <strong>of</strong> the crude oil utilised to manufacture refined oil. Some oils are synthetic and as such it is assumed that the commercial base product is generally trace element free (no specific elemental analysis <strong>of</strong> synthetic oils has been sighted). No information has been sighted on the metal content <strong>of</strong> new oils used in New Zealand motor vehicles. Motor vehicle oil accounts for about 40% <strong>of</strong> the oil consumed in New Zealand. Internationally used oils have been shown to contain a wide range <strong>of</strong> trace element concentrations (refer Vasquez-Duhatt 1989). Low to moderate concentrations <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the common metals are present in used oil (e.g., iron (Fe), Cd, Cu). <strong>The</strong> most abundant metal appears to be zinc with concentrations in the 1,000-2,000 mg/kg range. <strong>The</strong> limited New Zealand data indicates that used motor oil contains low concentrations <strong>of</strong> arsenic (As), Cd and mercury (Hg) (Moncrieff & Kennedy 2002). Used motor oils historically contained significant concentrations <strong>of</strong> lead (e.g., >2,000 mg/kg) however with the removal <strong>of</strong> lead (Pb) from petrol, these concentrations would have reduced significantly A range <strong>of</strong> greases and other automotive products are used to maintain and improve the operation <strong>of</strong> motor vehicles. <strong>The</strong>re are a wide variety <strong>of</strong> greases used in wheel bearings and other parts <strong>of</strong> the vehicle. <strong>The</strong>se greases may contain constituents such as molybdenum disulphide which is a common component <strong>of</strong> grease. Other automotive products used on vehicles to reduce wear and prevent metal components locking contain a range <strong>of</strong> metal and organic compounds. In addition to molybdenum disulphide which again is a common constituent other metals such as Cu and Pb may also be present. 2.3.3 Brake Pads Brake pads constitute a relatively complex source <strong>of</strong> inorganic contaminants due to the large variety <strong>of</strong> pads/linings on the New Zealand market (Moncrieff & Kennedy 2002). Table 2.2 provides a summary <strong>of</strong> the relative importance <strong>of</strong> trace elements in a selection <strong>of</strong> brake pads. It can be seen from that summary that the key elements in pads and therefore released from pads as they are worn are Fe, barium (Ba), Cu, Cr, Ni and Zn. Other elements such as Pb, antimony (Sb), titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr) are also contributed by the wear <strong>of</strong> brake pads. Kennedy & Gadd (2000) reported on the analysis <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> brake pads and brake pad dust samples in New Zealand. <strong>The</strong> key elements present in the pads and dust are manganese (Mn) (181- 1920 mg/kg), cobalt (Co) (11.6-45.8 mg/kg), Cr (39-1320), Cu (11-39,000 mg/kg), molybdenum (Mo) (0.4-215 mg/kg), Ni (44-660 mg/kg), Pb (1.28-1,290 mg/kg), Sb (0.07-201 mg/kg), tin (Sn) (
Page 1: The Effect
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Page 6 and 7: ii 4.2 Particulates in Urban Run<st
Page 8 and 9: iv 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
Page 10 and 11: vi MW Molecular weight N Nitrogen N
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Page 16 and 17: 6 mg/kg) and Zn (25-34,500 mg/kg).
Page 18 and 19: 8 Bitumen Bitumen is produced in Ne
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Page 28 and 29: 18 Yang et al. (1999) examined the
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Page 36 and 37: 26 Figure 4.1 - Variation in the co
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Page 46 and 47: 36 Further data can be found in the
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54 5.4.2 Dispersion Dilution and di
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56 5.6 Summary The
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58 6.2 Freshwater Ecosystems 6.2.1
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60 General Assessment Tools Commonl
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62 3. Increasing sediment inputs. 4
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64 considered that taxa richness wa
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66 Freshwater macro-invertebrate me
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68 runoff to fish
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72 one factor used to classify orga
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74 Zinc Measurement of</str
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76 in stormwater and receiving wate
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78 minute; sub-mitochondrial partic
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80 Toxicity tests have undertaken u
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82 High molecular weight PAHs are t
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84 Note: Sources refer Table 5.2. F
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86 Although a range of</str
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88 Bioaccumulation can be assessed
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90 Figure 6.2 - metal concentration
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92 6.5.3 Bioaccumulation of
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94 Water Stormwater quality data fr
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96 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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98 3. Echinoderm (Fellaster zelandi
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100 trace metals (probably Cu and Z
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102 concentrations of</stro
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104 that “concentrations
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106 A large amount of</stro
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108 A review of se
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110 Samples of man
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112 grazers such as mud flat snails
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114 8. OVERVIEW 8.1 Vehicles as sou
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116 The quality <s
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118 International studies have show
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120 A number of st
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122 construction. Center for Resear
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124 Carey, J.; Cook, P.; Ciesy, J.;
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126 Ellis, J. B. 1986: Pollutional
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128 Harrop D. O. 1984: Stormwater r
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130 Kennedy, P. C.; Kjellstrom, T.
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132 Maltby, L. A.; Boxall, D. M.; F
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134 Novotny, V.; Muehring, D.; Zito
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136 Ruck, J. 1998: Evaluation <stro
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138 Terracciano, S. A.; O’Brien,
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140 Webster, J. G.; Brown, K. L.; W
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142 10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to
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The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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