The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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70 deposition, tracking <strong>of</strong> material onto road surfaces, litter and debris generation, spillages from vehicles etc.,) is not known. As described earlier in this review, vehicles generate particulate matter through tyre and brake pad wear and through combustion <strong>of</strong> fuel. Most <strong>of</strong> the particles generated are very small. 6.3.3 Toxic Substances 6.3.3.1 Guidelines Historically water quality guidelines and criteria developed by USEPA, CCME and ANZECC have received the most use. <strong>The</strong> number <strong>of</strong> toxic substances for which guidelines and criteria have been developed is however limited given the complex chemical composition <strong>of</strong> stormwater run<strong>of</strong>f. Guidelines are available for the key road transport derived metals, PAHs and selected VOCs. <strong>The</strong> ANZECC (2000) guidelines for those parameters that are toxic or able to be bio-accumulated were developed using the methods <strong>of</strong> CCME (1991). As such, the guidelines were developed to protect all organisms. As with the Canadian approach, application factors were utilised where there was insufficient chronic toxicity data. Where there are no guidelines for a particular substance, a comment is provided on the available data for other key contaminants. Table 6.3 provides a summary <strong>of</strong> the key water quality guidelines for the key transport related metal contaminants and Table 6.4 provides a summary <strong>of</strong> guidelines for key transport related volatile contaminants. Table 6.3 - Summary <strong>of</strong> water quality guidelines for metals derived from transport emissions discharged to freshwaters (all data mg/m 3 ). Parameter ANZECC (2000) USEPA (2002) CCME(1999) 99 b 95 b Acute Chronic Cadmium a 0.06 0.2 1.16 0.92 0.012 Copper a 1.0 1.4 4.3 3.2 2 Lead a 1.0 3.4 17 0.66 1 Zinc a 2.4 8.0 42 42 30 Notes: a = dependent upon hardness, hardness = 30 g/m 3 . . 6.3.3.2 Toxicity data Although there are water quality guidelines for metal toxicant and a large toxicity database in the literature, for many <strong>of</strong> the VOCs that are present in road transport emissions there is only limited toxicity data. Rowe et al. (1997) reviewed the available toxicity information for VOCs that had been identified in the US NWQAP. Table 6.5 summarises the data presented by Rowe et al. (1997) for the lowest concentration <strong>of</strong> transport related VOCs that affect aquatic species. When there is insufficient toxicity data to develop water quality criteria, USEPA utilises values that are equal to the LOEC. For the Canadian guidelines, short term toxicity data (96 hour LC50) for the most sensitive species multiplied by application factors (0.05 for non-persistent effects, 0.01 for persistent effects) are used. Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
71 Table 6.4 - Summary <strong>of</strong> water quality guidelines for organic compounds derived from transport emissions discharged to freshwaters (all data mg/m 3 ). Parameter ANZECC (2000) USEPA (2002) CCME (1999) 95% level <strong>of</strong> protection Acute Chronic Benzene 950 5,300 a - 370 c o-xylene 350 p-xylene 200 Ethylbenzene - 32,000 a - 90 c Methylbenzene b - 17,500 a - 0.8 c Naphthalene 16 2,300 a 620 a 3.1 Acenaphthene - 1,700 a 520 a,b 5.8 Anthracene 0.012 Fluoranthene - 3,980 a - 0.04 Benzo[a]pyrene - - - 0.015 Benz[a]anthracene - - - 0.018 Fluoranthene - - - 0.04 Fluorene - - - 3.0 Phenanthrene - - - 0.4 Pyrene - - - 0.025 Total PAH 3.0 - - - Notes: a = Criteria not derived, LOEL presented. b = Toluene. c = Interim guideline. Table 6.5 - Summary <strong>of</strong> lowest effect toxicity data for selected VOCs reported by Rowe et al. (1997) (all data mg/m 3 ). Lowest Concentration Effect Parameter Organism MATC LOEC EC50 Benzene Fathead minnow nv 17,200 - Growth n-Butylbenzene Oryzias latipes (fish) 490 - - Immobilisation 1,2-dimethyl-benzene Coho salmon nv nv 600 Avoidance 1,3-dimethylbenzene Selanastrum (green nv nv 3,900 Growth algae) 1,3-dimethyl-benzene Selanastrum nv nv 3,200 Growth Ethylbenzene Daphnia nv nv 1,800 Immobilisation Methylbenzene Fathead minnow nv 6,000 - Growth (1-methylethyl)-benzene Daphnia nv nv 601 Immobilisation Naphthalene Daphnia nv nv 690 Phototactic response n-Propylbenzene Selanastrum nv nv 1,800 Growth Tri-methylbenzene Daphnia nv nv 3,600 Immobilisation 1,3,5-Trimethyl-benzene Daphnia nv nv 6,011 Immobilisation Notes: MATC = Maximum acceptable toxicant concentration. LOEC = Lowest observed effective concentration. EC50 = Median effective concentration. nv = No value. Kennedy & Gadd (2000) identified toxicity data for organic compounds known to be emitted by motor vehicles and for organic compounds identified as potentially being present in emission sources (e.g., tyres and brake pads) that released particles to the road corridor. Toxicity data was collected generated using the computer programmes ECOSAR and ASTER (derived using molecular weight and kow data and compound structure). <strong>The</strong> toxicity data was sorted to derive an ENEV (Environmental no-effects value). <strong>The</strong> ENEV value was calculated from the lowest chronic value where sufficient data was available and an application factor <strong>of</strong> 10. <strong>The</strong> toxicity data for the particular compound then allowed it to be ranked into one <strong>of</strong> three categories (low, medium and high toxicity). <strong>The</strong> thresholds used were similar but lower than those used by ERMA (1999). <strong>The</strong> toxicity data was Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
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iv 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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Page 46 and 47: 36 Further data can be found in the
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Page 54 and 55: 44 5 PATHWAYS & FATE OF CONTAMINANT
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Page 60 and 61: 50 Figure 5.1 - Percentage
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Page 64 and 65: 54 5.4.2 Dispersion Dilution and di
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Page 68 and 69: 58 6.2 Freshwater Ecosystems 6.2.1
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Page 98 and 99: 88 Bioaccumulation can be assessed
Page 100 and 101: 90 Figure 6.2 - metal concentration
Page 102 and 103: 92 6.5.3 Bioaccumulation of
Page 104 and 105: 94 Water Stormwater quality data fr
Page 106 and 107: 96 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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Page 122 and 123: 112 grazers such as mud flat snails
Page 124 and 125: 114 8. OVERVIEW 8.1 Vehicles as sou
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120 A number of st
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122 construction. Center for Resear
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124 Carey, J.; Cook, P.; Ciesy, J.;
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126 Ellis, J. B. 1986: Pollutional
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128 Harrop D. O. 1984: Stormwater r
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130 Kennedy, P. C.; Kjellstrom, T.
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132 Maltby, L. A.; Boxall, D. M.; F
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134 Novotny, V.; Muehring, D.; Zito
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136 Ruck, J. 1998: Evaluation <stro
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138 Terracciano, S. A.; O’Brien,
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140 Webster, J. G.; Brown, K. L.; W
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142 10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to
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