The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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74 Zinc Measurement <strong>of</strong> Zn in urban and roadway stormwater in New Zealand and overseas shows that average dissolved concentrations exceed the USEPA acute and chronic criteria and the ANZECC (2000) trigger <strong>of</strong> 8 mg/m 3 . Fig. 6.1 (From Timperley 2002) shows that the concentration <strong>of</strong> dissolved zinc in urban stormwater in New Zealand typically exceed the ANZECC (2000) trigger. Table 4.7 identified that average dissolved zinc concentrations in motorway stormwater in New Zealand are <strong>of</strong> the order <strong>of</strong> 40-70 mg/m 3 . <strong>The</strong> ANZECC (2000) triggers for 95 and 99% protection <strong>of</strong> freshwater biota are 2.4-8.0 mg/m 3 . Timperley et al. (2003) reported results <strong>of</strong> monitoring undertaken at two locations in Auckland (Ash St in Avondale and Richardson Rd in Balmoral). <strong>The</strong> results for Richardson Rd were not dissimilar to the results summarised in Fig. 6.1 and in Tables 4.6 and 4.7. Although variable concentrations were consistently <strong>of</strong> the order <strong>of</strong> 100 mg/m 3 throughout the period <strong>of</strong> sampling and well above the criteria and triggers identified above. Unlike Cu, the presence <strong>of</strong> DOM in stormwater or downstream receiving environments does not reduce the toxicity <strong>of</strong> Zn. Webster (2000) identified that the concentration <strong>of</strong> Zn was greater than the Zn complexing capacity. As such very little <strong>of</strong> the Zn is complexed. PAHs For organic compounds such as PAHs a comparison <strong>of</strong> the motorway concentration data presented in Section 4 with the guideline data in Table 6.4, indicates that the concentrations <strong>of</strong> specific PAHs in stormwater are considerably lower than the individual USEPA chronic criteria for the protection <strong>of</strong> aquatic life. <strong>The</strong> total PAH concentrations are however, in one <strong>of</strong> the reported data-sets just below the ANZECC (2000) guideline for total PAH. VOCs VOC concentrations in stormwater are low (refer Section 2) and typically several orders <strong>of</strong> magnitude lower than guideline values established by the USEPA and lower than those determined by CCME and ANZECC (2000). <strong>The</strong>re are however, few promulgated guideline values for VOCs. In addition, the VOC data reported for stormwater is limited in some cases by insensitive analytical data. For example, acrolein was not detected in USGS studies at a limit <strong>of</strong> detection <strong>of</strong> 2 mg/m 3 . <strong>The</strong> ANZECC (2000) guidelines have a no effects level <strong>of</strong> 0.2 mg/m 3 . As noted in Section 2, there is no published data for VOCs in stormwater in New Zealand. Other compounds A number <strong>of</strong> organic compounds were identified in tyres that could enter stormwater. <strong>The</strong>y enter stormwater through the production <strong>of</strong> particles through tyre wear and through the leaching <strong>of</strong> compounds when the tyre is warm and wet while in contact with the road and water, leaching <strong>of</strong> skid marks on road surfaces and through the leaching <strong>of</strong> tyre particles. <strong>The</strong> leachability <strong>of</strong> the wide range <strong>of</strong> compounds present in tyres does not appear to have been comprehensibly assessed as it relates to road run<strong>of</strong>f. Work has been undertaken in relation to one group <strong>of</strong> compounds – the benzathiazoles. <strong>The</strong> inset box on the following page presents an overview <strong>of</strong> benzathiazole in the stormwater environment. Examination <strong>of</strong> the theoretical solubility <strong>of</strong> organic compounds present in tyres and brake pads was assessed by Gadd & Kennedy (2000). In interpreting the comments made above, three matters need to be considered. Firstly, that the comments made need to take into account that any stormwater discharges are subject to the requirements for reasonable mixing. Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
75 Benzathiazoles in stormwater and receiving environments Although benzathiazole was not identified as a COPC by Kennedy & Gadd (2000), it is worth examining what we know about this group <strong>of</strong> soluble organic compounds and their toxicity. Reddy & Quinn (1997) identified Benzothiazole (BT), 2-hydroxybenzothiazole (HOBT) and 2-(4- morpholino)benzothiazole (24MoBT) in tyres (also identified in New Zealand tyres by Gadd & Kennedy 2000). Reddy & Quinn (1997) identified that following five leaches <strong>of</strong> tyre crumb particles with deionised water that 50% <strong>of</strong> the Benzothiazole (BT) compounds was removed. Dissolved BT and other benzothiazolamines have been detected in urban run<strong>of</strong>f by Reddy & Quinn (1997) and Kumata et al. (2002) (Table 6.6). Table 6.6 - Summary <strong>of</strong> mean dissolved concentrations <strong>of</strong> Benzathiazoles in urban run<strong>of</strong>f (concentrations ug/m 3 ). BT 378 –819 (Pawtuxet River, Reddy & Quinn 1997) HOBT 721 – 5,640 (Pawtuxet River, Reddy & Quinn 1997) 24MoBt 15-383 (Reddy & Quinn 1997 and Kumata et al. (2002) Chuo highway Japan) <strong>The</strong> benzathiozoles are strongly water soluble and as such they tend to be transported or washed out <strong>of</strong> the atmosphere in dissolved form. BT is capable <strong>of</strong> being volatilised and both BT and HOBT can be microbially degraded. With limited biological uptake <strong>of</strong> this group, the combined environmental processes should see a shift in the concentrations <strong>of</strong> all three compounds over time. BT and HOBT should decrease and 24MoBT increase over time. In estuarine environments and coastal environments there should be a net export <strong>of</strong> these compounds out <strong>of</strong> the system in tidal waters. <strong>The</strong> microbial fate and photolysis <strong>of</strong> benzathiozoles have recently been evaluated by Kirouani-Harani (2003). Evans et al. (2000) examined the effects <strong>of</strong> benzathiazole <strong>of</strong> sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon variagatus). <strong>The</strong>y reported that benzothiazole was lethal and growth inhibitory to sheepshead minnow larvae. Lethality occurred after 5 days exposure at 60 g/m 3 and significant decrease in growth at concentrations down to the lowest test concentration <strong>of</strong> 3.75 g/m 3 . Upper concentration in Table 6.6. <strong>of</strong> 5.6 mg/m 3 are 1,000 times lower than the lower concentration used by Evans et al. (2000) in their toxicity assessment. <strong>The</strong> data indicates that benzothiazoles are not an acute toxicity risk in receiving environments. Based upon this simple requirement, copper, lead and zinc concentrations would only require a small amount <strong>of</strong> dilution to ensure that the potentially chronic effects that could arise from the discharge are avoided. Secondly, there are however, a number <strong>of</strong> factors that need to be considered when assessing the potential for toxicity. <strong>The</strong>se are: a. In many urban streams, stormwater flow may comprise most <strong>of</strong> the stream flow. b. Stormwater metals data is typically reported as total metal. <strong>The</strong> USEPA guidelines should now be interpreted as dissolved metal concentrations and ANZECC (2000) guidelines for metals are most appropriately compared to dissolved metal concentrations. c. <strong>The</strong> comparison does not take into account the form or the species <strong>of</strong> metal and therefore the potential toxicity. e. <strong>The</strong>re are issues associated with the appropriateness <strong>of</strong> toxicity tests (see below). <strong>The</strong>se issues have recently been reviewed by Timperley (1999). Timperley concluded that dissolved concentrations were potentially a poor indicator <strong>of</strong> aquatic toxicity. This occurs as not all dissolved constituents are bio-available. <strong>The</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> metal in bioavailable form (to exert toxic effect) is dependent upon the pH as the toxicity <strong>of</strong> the free ion is still dependent upon complexing by major ions Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
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The Effect
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ii 4.2 Particulates in Urban Run<st
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iv 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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vi MW Molecular weight N Nitrogen N
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2 1. Moncrieff, I.; Kennedy, P. 200
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4 Table 2.1 - Contaminant Source Cl
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6 mg/kg) and Zn (25-34,500 mg/kg).
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8 Bitumen Bitumen is produced in Ne
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10 differences between petrol and d
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12 on the nature of</strong
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14 As such, available information i
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16 An examination of</stron
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18 Yang et al. (1999) examined the
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20 to elevated concentrations in ty
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22 sample of overs
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Page 36 and 37: 26 Figure 4.1 - Variation in the co
Page 38 and 39: 28 Figure 4.2 - Variation in the co
Page 40 and 41: 30 Metal Cu Cd Pb Zn Table 4.6 - Su
Page 42 and 43: 32 probably reflect lower traffic d
Page 44 and 45: 34 (1995) provide a general review
Page 46 and 47: 36 Further data can be found in the
Page 48 and 49: 38 by ARC (1994) indicated that TPH
Page 50 and 51: 40 Cations/Anions Common ionic cons
Page 52 and 53: 42 Catchpits Between the street sur
Page 54 and 55: 44 5 PATHWAYS & FATE OF CONTAMINANT
Page 56 and 57: 46 The material wh
Page 58 and 59: 48 crystalline species present were
Page 60 and 61: 50 Figure 5.1 - Percentage
Page 62 and 63: 52 short (e.g., < 1 day). In water,
Page 64 and 65: 54 5.4.2 Dispersion Dilution and di
Page 66 and 67: 56 5.6 Summary The
Page 68 and 69: 58 6.2 Freshwater Ecosystems 6.2.1
Page 70 and 71: 60 General Assessment Tools Commonl
Page 72 and 73: 62 3. Increasing sediment inputs. 4
Page 74 and 75: 64 considered that taxa richness wa
Page 76 and 77: 66 Freshwater macro-invertebrate me
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Page 82 and 83: 72 one factor used to classify orga
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Page 88 and 89: 78 minute; sub-mitochondrial partic
Page 90 and 91: 80 Toxicity tests have undertaken u
Page 92 and 93: 82 High molecular weight PAHs are t
Page 94 and 95: 84 Note: Sources refer Table 5.2. F
Page 96 and 97: 86 Although a range of</str
Page 98 and 99: 88 Bioaccumulation can be assessed
Page 100 and 101: 90 Figure 6.2 - metal concentration
Page 102 and 103: 92 6.5.3 Bioaccumulation of
Page 104 and 105: 94 Water Stormwater quality data fr
Page 106 and 107: 96 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
Page 108 and 109: 98 3. Echinoderm (Fellaster zelandi
Page 110 and 111: 100 trace metals (probably Cu and Z
Page 112 and 113: 102 concentrations of</stro
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Page 118 and 119: 108 A review of se
Page 120 and 121: 110 Samples of man
Page 122 and 123: 112 grazers such as mud flat snails
Page 124 and 125: 114 8. OVERVIEW 8.1 Vehicles as sou
Page 126 and 127: 116 The quality <s
Page 128 and 129: 118 International studies have show
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Page 132 and 133: 122 construction. Center for Resear
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124 Carey, J.; Cook, P.; Ciesy, J.;
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126 Ellis, J. B. 1986: Pollutional
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128 Harrop D. O. 1984: Stormwater r
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130 Kennedy, P. C.; Kjellstrom, T.
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132 Maltby, L. A.; Boxall, D. M.; F
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134 Novotny, V.; Muehring, D.; Zito
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136 Ruck, J. 1998: Evaluation <stro
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138 Terracciano, S. A.; O’Brien,
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140 Webster, J. G.; Brown, K. L.; W
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142 10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to
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The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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