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22 per cent of the poverty line. To the extent thatwomen rely more heavily on non-contributorybenefits than men, the adequacy of these benefitsis of major concern from a gender equalityperspective. 127RecommendationsThe specific types of reforms required to redresswomen’s socio-economic disadvantage in old agedepend on the economic and social context as wellas on the extent and form of existing coverage.Combining contributory and non-contributoryold-age pensions can be an effective way toadvance towards national social protection floors.Universal social pensions are the best way toensure an adequate standard of living for all olderpeople, women and men, but they are particularlyimportant for women, who have less access tocontributory benefits, savings and assets in oldage than men. For pension reforms to effectivelysupport gender equality it is crucial to:• Mobilize older women and engage them, aswell as women’s rights activists, in debates onpension reform• Extend the reach of social pensions,particularly in low-income countries wherethe majority of older people currently lack anyform of social protection in old age• Pending the introduction of universal systems,choose pension testing over means testingbased on household income to ensure that allwomen who do not have a pension of theirown benefit from social pensions• If means testing is chosen, adjust incomethresholds to reflect the number of olderpeople in the household and ensure that alleligible elderly people receive a social pensionin their own name• Equalize access to contributory pensionschemes where these enjoy broad coverageand reduce gender gaps in benefit levelsby adapting eligibility criteria and benefitformulas to women’s life course andemployment patterns• Make care credits available to all caregivers,regardless of their sex, to compensate forcontributions ‘lost’ during periods out of thelabour force to look after dependants (whetherchildren or elderly, sick or disabled familymembers).INVESTMENT IN SOCIAL SERVICES:A LINCHPIN OF GENDER EQUALITYSOCIAL SERVICES AND THE REALIZATIONOF WOMEN’S RIGHTSPublic investment in accessible and affordable goodquality social services—including health, education,water and sanitation, as well as care provision—iskey to the realization of economic and social rights,including the right to an adequate standard ofliving. 128 Evidence shows that the effect of socialservices on poverty and inequality can exceed thatof social transfers. Across OECD countries, in-kindsocial services increase disposable income by