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formal employment that benefits from these types oftax breaks. Women may face a larger burden of VATwhen they are responsible for purchasing consumergoods needed in the household. Progressive incometaxes may effectively tax women’s income at ahigher rate than men’s when household income ispooled to calculate the taxes owed and women’sincome is seen as supplemental to that of a malebreadwinner. 63 These distributional consequencesare often not considered when setting tax policies.Dominant macroeconomic strategies haveartificially reduced the fiscal space available togovernments, limiting the resources to financesocial policies and programmes that can helpimprove gender equality. More generally, fiscalpolicy has been formulated with little attentionto its impact on inequality and the social costs ofcutbacks to government spending. There is thepotential to mobilize additional resources to supportthe realization of economic and social rights. Thisrequires a different approach to macroeconomicpolicy, as the next section will describe.The interconnectedness of macroeconomicand social policiesCurrent policy frameworks and processes tend toartificially separate macroeconomic and socialpolicies. The role of the former is seen primarilyas maintaining price stability and promotinggrowth. When they are formulated, the impact ofsocial policies on the macroeconomic environmentand future trajectory of the economy are notconsidered. While social policies are recognized asimportant, they are to be implemented only oncebroad macroeconomic parameters have been set.In particular, how unpaid care and domestic workshapes the macroeconomic environment is nottaken into account.Social services, whether provided through thegovernment, private providers or unpaid care anddomestic work, have macroeconomic implications.Child development, education, health and socialcare policies, which were examined in detail inChapter 3, have direct implications for productivity,growth and economic performance. Similarly,policies to support youth in the transition to youngadulthood and into the labour market, discussed inChapter 2, have implications for the performanceof the economy as a whole. The artificial divisionbetween macroeconomic policies and these otherpolicy areas means that too little attention is paidto employment, unpaid work and social issues inthe formulation of macroeconomic strategies.Figure 4.6 illustrates the interconnectedness ofeconomic and social policies, and shows what arights-based approach to macroeconomic policymight look like.A RIGHTS-BASED MACROECONOMICPOLICY AGENDAMany of the problems with macroeconomic policiesdiscussed above are well known. Yet, in practice,policy alternatives are rarely adopted and, in mostcases, the approach to macroeconomic policy asactually implemented has not changed much sincethe 1980s. There are alternatives to neoliberal
Figure 4.6A RIGHTS-BASED APPROACH TO MACROECONOMIC POLICYThe divisions between economic and social policy are artificial;connecting the two is key to the realization of rightsUnpaid care work is key to enhancing individual productivecapabilities and generates real economic valueInvestments in waterand sanitation can helpreduce and redistributeunpaid care anddomestic workSpending on health &education generateslong-term economicbenefits, with thepotential to raisegovernment revenuesin the futureHEALTHCAREEDUCATIONCARE OFPEOPLEBASICSERVICESSOCIALTRANSFERSAT THECORE IS THECULTIVATIONOF HUMANPOTENTIALBUDGET ANDTAX POLICIESJOBCREATIONPRICESTABILITYNATIONALINCOMEA rigid focus on lowinflation targetscan lead to feweremploymentopportunitiesJobs scarcity andeconomic insecuritycan heightenvulnerability andreinforce stereotypes,stigma and violenceIncreases in GDPare important onlyas a means to bettersocial outcomes,including greatergender equalityMacroeconomic policies influence the resources availableto fund social policy and support the care of individualsUnpaid care transferstime and resourcesfrom women toothers, benefitting theeconomyGender-responsivebudgeting guides fiscaland budgetary policiesto enhance genderequality outcomesEND GOALThe full realization of economic and social rights for all
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PROGRESS OF THE WORLD’S WOMEN 201
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PROGRESS OF THE WORLD’S WOMEN 201
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FOREWORDBY PHUMZILEMLAMBO-NGCUKAUND
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UN Women headquarters staffWritten
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2TRANSFORMINGWORK FOR WOMEN’S RIG
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4TOWARDSAN ENABLING MACROECONOMIC E
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average earn just half as much inco
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‘ensuring that they do not mainta
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childcare, are just as important an
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ights principles are also an import
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“Most of these women did not choo
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SUBSTANTIVE EQUALITYFOR WOMEN:The c
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5The international human rights sys
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No empowerment without rightsA wide
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Figure 1.1Number of countries with
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adapt to changing social practices
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The number of countries with polici
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in the vast majority of countries.
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In other words, ‘discrimination i
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States must also guard against deli
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International human rights mechanis
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Figure 1.4A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTAN
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BOX 1.4Gender and poverty: What do
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Figure 1.6Ratio of net secondary at
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Crisis and austerity are jeopardizi
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BOX 1.5Gender stereotypes and punis
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stood at close to 22 per cent—far
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Achievements have been significant.
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Drawing on the understanding of sub
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Yet Rana Plaza proved a turning poi
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TRANSFORMING WORKFOR WOMEN’S RIGH
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workers open to abuse and exploitat
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IN BRIEF/1Paid work can be a founda
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INTRODUCTIONAccess to decent employ
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Second, the range of opportunities
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Chapter overviewThe first part of t
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Figure 2.1Labour force participatio
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ALBGTMSLVFigure 2.3AN EYE ON THE GA
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Another striking trend is the decli
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In a study on Germany, France, Swed
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The unequal distribution of unpaid
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Figure 2.5Typical childcare arrange
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Today, parental leave is commonplac
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their skills. Its most pernicious i
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Causes of occupational segregationT
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programme aims to address the great
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CLOSING GENDER PAY GAPSPersistent g
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Causes of gender pay gapsIn looking
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while the rest have multiple minimu
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access to services that reduce wome
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Figure 2.11Segmentation of informal
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Extending rights at work for paid d
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For example, the legal and regulato
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the problems faced by poor people l
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Women’s organizations, such as th
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Governments should:• Ensure that
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Despite being dispersed across seve
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In recent years, globalization and
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The Veshya Anyay Mukti Parishad (VA
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MAKING SOCIAL POLICYWORK FOR WOMEN1
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The team behind the Egyptian progra
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IN BRIEF/1Demographic, family and h
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INTRODUCTIONSocial policy is fundam
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social policy design and delivery c
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TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITYIN SOCIAL TR
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Figure 3.2Women’s personal income
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the potential to contribute to the
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No guarantee of empowermentHowever,
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BOX 3.3Transforming conditional cas
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Table 3.2Selected employment guaran
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BOX 3.4Ethiopia’s PSNP: Gender-re
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Figure 3.4Proportion of people abov
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Gender gaps in pension outcomes ref
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But even where individual capital a
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coverage. In these cases, women wil
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22 per cent of the poverty line. To
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Page 162 and 163: Figure 3.7Percentage of women who r
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Page 166 and 167: BOX 3.9Rwanda’s rapid decline in
Page 168 and 169: Figure 3.9Proportion of women who s
Page 170 and 171: Breaking down institutional barrier
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Page 174 and 175: uneven. Data on early childhood edu
Page 176 and 177: Balancing educational and childcare
Page 178 and 179: Table 3.3Care arrangements for olde
Page 180 and 181: RecommendationsCare services are an
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Page 184 and 185: formidable access barriers, particu
Page 186 and 187: the Geneva-based Water Supply and S
Page 189 and 190: MAKING PROGRESS/STORIES OF CHANGEA
Page 191: strain. In 1996, the country’s HI
Page 194 and 195: IN BRIEF/1Macroeconomic policies af
Page 196 and 197: INTRODUCTIONAdvances in substantive
Page 198 and 199: hierarchy. 10 Greece, for example,
Page 200 and 201: Figure 4.1Female to male secondary
Page 202 and 203: and the United Republic of Tanzania
Page 204 and 205: In order to adequately recognize an
Page 206 and 207: Overall, since the 1980s macroecono
Page 208 and 209: Figure 4.4Government general revenu
Page 212 and 213: approaches to macroeconomics, howev
Page 214 and 215: improving the way in which taxes ar
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Page 220 and 221: social services (see Chapter 3). Th
Page 222 and 223: youth, can prevent the accumulation
Page 224 and 225: Figure 4.7Open Budget Index, 2012Th
Page 226 and 227: Article 2.1 of the ICESCR states th
Page 228 and 229: treaty between the Plurinational St
Page 230 and 231: agreements—but they go further by
Page 233 and 234: MAKING PROGRESS/STORIES OF CHANGECO
Page 235 and 236: “Everything I personally did, and
Page 237 and 238: equality, emphasizing women’s pra
Page 239 and 240: 3. Strengthen women’s income secu
Page 241 and 242: • Implementing gender-responsive
Page 243 and 244: • Developing standards for the co
Page 245 and 246: MONITORING WOMEN’SECONOMIC ANDSOC
Page 247 and 248: from water sources, therefore affec
Page 249 and 250: censuses, time use and violence aga
Page 251 and 252: percentage of gross domestic produc
Page 253 and 254: TYPE OF EMPLOYMENT dWOMEN’S EARNI
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FIELD OF STUDY OF TERTIARY STUDENTS
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TIME USE aSurveyyearAgegroupUnpaid
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YOUTHUNEMPLOYMENT RATE ¥OCCUPATION
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HEALTH SERVICESPublic health expend
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RESERVATIONS TO CEDAWCEDAW status a
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RESERVATIONS TO CEDAWCEDAW status a
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ANNEX 7:UN WOMEN REGIONAL GROUPINGS
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Gammage, Sarah, Carla Kraft and Tom
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classification of low-income econom
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96. ILO 2000a, article 6, says that
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285. This estimation is based on a
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235. Aguirre and Ferrari 2014.236.
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REFERENCESAbalu, G. and R. Hassan.
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Berg, J. 2009. “Brazil: The Minim
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Cook, S. and X.-Y. Dong. 2011. “H
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. 2015. “UNECE Statistical Databa
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Galindo, L.M. and J. Ros. 2008. “
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. 2014. “Progressive Policy Chang
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. 2007. “Marriage, Motherhood and
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McIntyre, D., M.K. Ranson, B.K. Aul
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Phelan, J.C., B.G. Link and J.F. Do
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Staritz, C. and J.G. Reis, eds. 201
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. 2012c. “Report of the Working G
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. 2014d. “Trachoma: Situation and
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