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• Equal opportunities and non-discrimination, including in relation to hiring, promotion andtraining 7• Rest, leisure and reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay 8• The right to form and join trade unions for the promotion and protection of workers’ economicand social interests 9• Social security, including but not limited to ‘special protections’ such as paid leave andadequate benefits for women before and after childbirth 10In addition to the provisions of the ICESCR and CEDAW, a comprehensive set of internationallabour standards are set out in 189 ILO conventions, which are legally binding internationaltreaties, and 203 recommendations, which are guidelines to help countries apply the conventions.Progress on formal equality but barrierspersistThe world has advanced significantly in ensuringequality in women’s and men’s legal rights to work,rights at work and access to economic resources. 11Rapid progress on expanding access to education,alongside greater control over their fertility,have both played a part in giving women betteropportunities for paid work.By 2014, 59 countries had passed laws stipulatingequal pay for work of equal value; 12 125 countries hadlaws to prohibit sexual harassment in the workplace; 13128 countries had laws that guarantee marriedwomen’s equality when it comes to property; andin 112 countries daughters had equal inheritancerights to sons. 14 Human rights treaties have beeninstrumental to the progress that has been made bysetting global standards and by enabling genderequality advocates to hold governments to account. 15However, there is still further to go to fill gaps inlegal frameworks and repeal discriminatory lawsin relation to women’s access to the labour market.Some 77 countries maintain restrictions on the typesof work that women can do by, for example, banningthem from working at night or in occupations such asmining or construction. 16Other significant barriers remain to women’s entryinto the labour force. At the global level, women’slabour force participation rates (LFPR) havestagnated since the 1990s. Currently, only half ofwomen are in the labour force compared to morethan three quarters of men. Despite considerableregional variations, nowhere has this gendergap been eliminated. Nor have improvements inaccess to education closed the gender gap in pay.Globally, women earn on average 24 per centless than men (see Annex 4). The cumulative resultof gender gaps in labour force participation, inearnings and in social transfers is substantial. Astudy of four countries estimates lifetime incomegaps between women and men of between 31 and75 per cent (see Box 2.4).What explains the persistence of women’s socioeconomicdisadvantage in the labour marketdespite the significant gains in formal equality?First, women have entered the labour market inlarge numbers, sometimes in response to economiccrisis and distress, at a time when economies havenot been creating sufficient decent jobs. As a result,millions of women and men are left in poor quality,insecure employment.71