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to high levels of unemployment among youngwomen in many regions. 53In addition, gains in women’s education have nothad the expected positive impact on gender paygaps. In a study of 64 countries, after accountingfor gender differences in education, the sizeof the (adjusted) pay gap actually increased,indicating that rising female education has notbeen fully or equally rewarded in the labourmarket. 54 At every level of education (includingno education) women on average earn less thanmen. These gender gaps reflect different treatmentin the labour market due to discrimination,occupational segregation and greater constraintsfor women in balancing employment and familyresponsibilities, none of which can be addressedthrough education alone. 55TOWARDS SUBSTANTIVE EQUALITYIN PAID AND UNPAID WORKUnequal outcomes for women in the labourmarket are the biggest contributor to theiroverall socio-economic disadvantage. Over alifetime, differences in employment rates andpay combine to create large cumulative incomedifferences between women and men. Data fromFrance, Germany, Sweden and Turkey suggestthat women earn between 31 and 75 per centless than men over their lifetimes (see Box 2.4).The gender gap in lifetime income is likely tobe especially wide in countries such as Turkey,where women’s labour force participation islow, and in developing countries where socialprotection coverage is very limited.BOX 2.4Accumulating socio-economic disadvantage: Gender gaps in lifetime incomeIncome inequality between women and men is usually measured in terms of gender gaps in payper hour, week, month or year. These data provide a snapshot, but they do not tell us anythingabout how women’s disadvantage accumulates over their lifetimes. Gender pay gaps, as wellas differences in labour force participation rates, types of employment (informal vs. formal,wage vs. self-employment), levels of education and experience, and the generosity of socialtransfers, all contribute to gaps in women’s and men’s income over the longer term.81